i4 i10 i25 i27 i31 i46 i59 i65 i66 i108 i131 i141 i150 Ovary and fruit covered in imbricate scales; flowers hermaphroditic or unisexual, but only rarely dimorphic, arranged singly or in dyads or rarely in cincinniOvary and fruit glabrous, or with peltate or basifixed scales, hairs, corky warts, or spines, but not with imbricate scales; flowers hermaphroditic or unisexual, often dimorphic, borne singly or in triads or in pairs derived from triads, or in cincinniFlowers very large, borne in a tight cupule of 711 overlapping bracts; petals ± woody, sharply pointed; stamens 2170; fruit ovoid, beaked, covered with minute scales; mesocarp fibrous; endocarp thick, woody, with 6 or 12 internal longitudinal flanges penetrating the seedFlowers not borne in a cupule of bracts; petals not sharply pointed; stamens not more than 12; fruit lacking an endocarpArborescent, acaulescent or climbing, dioecious, monoecious or hermaphroditic, hapaxanthic or pleonanthic palms; leaves pinnate or palmate, spiny or unarmed, if spiny spines generally not organised into groups; stigmas pyramidal. New World and African palmsArborescent, acaulescent or climbing, mostly dioecious, hapaxanthic or pleonanthic palms; leaves pinnate, spiny, with spines regularly or subregularly organised into whorls or partial whorls; stigmas pyramidal or trifid. Palms of Asia, Malesia and Pacific with one outlier in AfricaLeaves palmate with usually numerous reduplicate segmentsLeaves pinnate or, rarely, simply forked but with pinnate venationSlender, unarmed, clustered, undergrowth palms; leaf usually irregularly divided into 1several-fold segments; rachillae short and compressed; staminate flowers in dyads borne distichously on the rachillae. South AmericaModerate to robust, solitary or clustered, armed or unarmed palms; leaf regularly divided into single-fold segments; the staminate rachillae and sometimes pistillate rachillae catkin-like, bearing spirally arranged flowers, singly or in pairsModerate, clustered palms with spiny stems; pistillate flowers borne on short catkin-like branches; staminate flowers solitary in the axil of each rachilla bract. South AmericaMassive, solitary palms with unarmed stems; pistillate flowers very few or single, borne on scarcely catkin-like branches; staminate flowers borne in dyads. South AmericaClimbing palms, the leaves terminating in a cirrus armed with acanthophylls; flowers hermaphroditic and borne in pairs, or unisexual and borne in a complex dichasial cincinnusMassive acaulescent or tree palms, leaves not terminating in a cirrus; rachillae bearing pistillate flowers basally and staminate flowers distallyFlowers borne in clusters of ca. 511 in the axils of overlapping distichous bracts, the central 1 or 3 pistillate, the rest staminate in 2 lateral cincinni. AfricaFlowers hermaphroditic, borne in pairs (very rarely in threes)Pleonanthic rattans; rachilla bracts minute, incomplete; floral bracteoles absent; corolla tubular, very thick, with 3 short lobes; filaments united in a fleshy epipetalous ring. AfricaHapaxanthic rattans; rachilla bracts conspicuous, complete; floral bracteoles present; corolla coriaceous, tubular at the base, with 3 boat-shaped lobes; filaments not united in a fleshy ring. AfricaHermaphroditic or polygamous palms; stigmas pyramidalDioecious palms; stigmas trifid.Climbing palms; flowers solitary; leaflets lanceolate to broadly diamond-shaped, praemorseMassive tree palms; leaflets linear to lanceolate, acute, entireAcaulescent palms, the leaves lacking cirri, flowers of both sexes borne in catkin-like rachillaeAcaulescent, erect or climbing palms, rachillae not usually catkin-likePleonanthic palms (but see Salacca secunda and Salacca sp. nov. Henderson); inflorescences short, in bud enclosed within the subtending leaf sheath, at anthesis emerging from a vertical groove on the abaxial surface of the sheath; terminal leaflets compound, or the whole leaf flabellate; sarcotesta easily separable from rest of seed. Southeast Asia to West MalesiaHapaxanthic palm; inflorescence not enclosed in a vertical groove in the surface of the sheath; terminal leaflets not compound; sarcotesta adhering to rest of seed. Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and BorneoVery tall, pleonanthic, tree palmsClimbing palms, usually with climbing whips, more rarely erect or acaulescentHapaxanthic rattans; leaf sheaths lacking a knee-shaped swelling; pistillate rachillae bearing solitary flowers; staminate flowers solitary or pairedAlmost always pleonanthic rattans; leaf sheaths usually bearing a knee-shaped swelling below the insertion of the petiole; pistillate rachillae bearing dyads of one pistillate flower together with a sterile staminate flower, soon falling (very rarely 2 pistillate and 1 sterile staminate or more), or if sterile staminate lacking, then pleonanthic; staminate rachilla bracts subtending solitary fertile staminate flowersFirst-order inflorescence branches pendulous, bearing strictly distichous, conspicuous, overlapping or not, boatshaped bracts, often completely enclosing the rachillae; rachilla bracts obscure (except in monstrous forms); staminate flowers borne in pairs; tips of fruit scales often reflexed. Himalayas to BaliFirst-order inflorescence branches pendulous or not, bearing bracts scarcely differentiated from other inflorescence bracts, not obscuring rachillae; rachilla bracts conspicuous; staminate flowers borne singly; tips of fruit scales not reflexedLeaf sheath without ocrea; inflorescences of both sexes diffusely branched, usually to 3 orders; flowers with membranous perianth whorls; anthers borne on long, fine, inflexed filaments, pendulous from the lobes of the androecial ring; fruit covered with innumerable, minute, irregularly arranged scales. Indo China to Malaya Peninsula and SumatraLeaf sheath bearing an ocrea, sometimes disintegrating; inflorescences of both sexes branching to 2 orders only, very rarely diffusely branched to 3 orders; flowers with thick coriaceous perianth whorls; anthers ± sessile, pendulous from the tips of the lobes of the androecial ring; fruit covered in large, regularly arranged scales. Thailand, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, BorneoPistillate rachillae bearing solitary flowers; rachillae enclosed by net-like bracts. BorneoPistillate rachillae bearing dyads of one pistillate flower together with a sterile staminate flower (very rarely 2 pistillate and 1 sterile staminate or more); rachillae hardly enclosed in net-like bractsEntire inflorescence enclosed within the prophyllInflorescence not enclosed within the prophyll, or prophyll sheathing only the base of the inflorescenceProphyll opening by a pair of pores near the apex, splitting along its length only after anthesis or accidentally. Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, BorneoProphyll splitting along its length at anthesisProphyll much larger than any other inflorescence bract; two erect ear-like appendages (auricles) present at the mouth of the leaf sheath; climbing whips absent; endosperm homogeneous. Malay Peninsula, BorneoProphyll enclosing a series of similar rachis bracts, but with their tips enfolded in the beak of the prophyll; auricles absent; cirrus almost always present; endosperm ruminate. IndiaNew GuineaProphyll and rachis bracts splitting along their lengths to the very base, usually neatly falling at anthesis except for the prophyll, which may persist long after anthesis; floral bracteoles usually low, often rather inconspicuous; endosperm always ruminate. IndiaNew GuineaProphyll and rachis bracts strictly tubular, or, if splitting, then persistent and with a tubular base; floral bracteoles inconspicuous to conspicuous; endosperm ruminate or homogeneousPistillate flowers borne in a terminal head, each flower with 3(4) free, large, asymmetrical carpels and 6 minute perianth segments; staminate flowers crowded on spikes at the tips of the inflorescence branches, below the pistillate head, each flower with 6 linear distinct perianth segments and 3 anthers borne on a solid stalkPistillate flowers not borne in a terminal head, or if so, then plants dioecious and flowers multi-parted; staminate flowers with stamens filaments free or variously connate, very rarely forming a solid stalkLeaves splitting along adaxial folds to give induplicate segments or leaflets, the leaf palmate or pinnate, or bipinnate, rarely splitting between folds or along abaxial folds (and then the leaf always palmate), or entire but with apical lobing representing very short induplicate segmentsLeaves splitting along abaxial folds to give reduplicate leaflets, the leaf always pinnate, or entire bifid, pinnately ribbedLeaves pinnate, bipinnate or entireLeaves palmate, costapalmate or entire, leaf and segment tips not conspicuously praemorse, rarely shallowly toothedLeaf or leaflet margins strongly and irregularly praemorse; basal-most leaflets not modified as spines; monoecious or very rarely dioecious; inflorescences with an inconspicuous prophyll and numerous large peduncular bracts; flowers unisexual, arranged in triads of a central pistillate and two lateral staminate flowers, or reduced by abortion to paired staminate and solitary pistillate flowersLeaflets acute, not praemorse; the basal-most leaflets modified as spines; dioecious; inflorescences bearing a single large primary bract (prophyll); flowers solitaryLeaf doubly pinnate; inflorescences always bearing flowers of both sexes; stamens numerous. S.E. Asia, Malesia, AustraliaLeaf simply pinnate; inflorescences rarely bisexual, usually unisexual; stamens 3 to numerousBasipetally hapaxanthic palms; inflorescences always unisexual; sepals of staminate flower connate in a tube; stamens (3)6(915). India, China, Indochina southwards to S. ThailandBasipetally hapaxanthic or acropetal pleonanthic palms; inflorescences sometimes bisexual; sepals of staminate flower free, imbricate; stamens (6)-numerous. China, Ryukyu, S.E. Asia, Malesia, Christmas Islands (Indian Ocean), AustraliaDioecious palms; flowers strongly dimorphic; staminate and sometimes pistillate flowers borne in deep pits formed by connation and adnation of rachilla bracts; endocarp very thick and hard, sometimes heavily ornamented, with an apical pore or splitting into 2 valvesHermaphroditic, polygamodioecious or rarely strictly dioecious; flowers not borne in pits; endocarp not usually thick, lacking a pore and never splitting into 2 valvesStaminate and pistillate inflorescences similar; flowers of both sexes sunken in pits; bracteoles subtending flowers bearing tufts of hairs; fruit stalked, usually 1-seeded, if 2- or 3-seeded then lobed, pyrenes not formed, stigmatic and carpellary remains basalStaminate and pistillate inflorescences dissimilar; staminate flower clusters concealed in pits; bracteoles subtending staminate flowers not bearing tufts of hairs; pistillate flowers sessile in the axils of large leathery bracts; fruit sessile, ± symmetrical, 13-seeded, endocarp forming pyrenes, stigmatic remains apicalSeed deeply grooved. MadagascarSeed not groovedEndocarp strongly flanged, lacking a circular apical pore. MadagascarEndocarp not flanged and with a distinct terminal poreFruits various in shape, distally expanded, often shouldered, usually asymmetrical, rarely ovoid or spherical; seed irregular in outline, endosperm homogeneous. Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India and ?Sri LankaFruit ovoid; seed with ruminate endosperm. Egypt and SudanStaminate flowers solitary or in cincinni of 26 flowersStaminate flowers numerous, in cincinni of 3070 flowersBracts of staminate inflorescence imbricate at the margins; pistillode nipple-like; pyrenes densely hairy with thick, internally ridged wall; seed grooved to conform to the ridges. Malay Peninsula, BorneoBracts of the staminate inflorescence connate at the margins; pistillode columnar, prominent; pyrenes not hairy, but thin, ridged, sculptured, or apically 3-lobed; seed not grooved. Mascarene IslandsStaminate rachillae several, wide; stamens 6; pyrenes not deeply lobed; seeds usually 3, wider than thick, shallowly to deeply bilobed. Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India to New Guinea and AustraliaStaminate rachillae only 1 or 2, very wide; stamens 1518; pyrenes deeply bilobed, very thick; seed usually 1(3), very large, deeply bilobed. Seychelles IslandsGynoecium composed of 3 carpels, united at the base, with free styles, or with a common styleGynoecium composed of 14 carpels, free throughout their length, or 3 carpels basally free but with united stylesRachillae bearing complete tubular bracts subtending solitary or grouped flowers; seed with basal or subbasal embryoRachilla bracts minute, not tubularLeaf blade concolorous; adaxial hastula absent; hermaphroditic; fruit smooth; endosperm homogeneous or ruminateLeaf blade strongly discolorous; adaxial hastula present; dioecious; fruit papillate; endosperm ruminateHapaxanthic palms; inflorescence paniculate, highly branched; fruit with apical or basal stigmatic remains; endosperm homogeneous, rounded or deeply groovedPleonanthic palms; inflorescence spicate or branched to 12 orders; fruit with apical stigmatic remains; endosperm ruminate or homogeneousMassive solitary unbranched palm; leaf blade with a hastula; fruit with apical stigmatic remains; seed deeply and regularly groovedShrubby palm with short erect dichotomously branching stems; leaf blade lacking a hastula; fruit with basal stigmatic remains; seed not groovedHapaxanthic palms with huge suprafoliar aggregation of inflorescences; petioles armed with regular teeth; flowers grouped in cincinni; style with 3 separate canals; seed with apical embryoPleonanthic palms with interfoliar inflorescences; petiole unarmed; flowers solitary; style with a single common canal; seed with lateral or subapical embryoLeaf sometimes with a central abaxial split, never with any other abaxial splits; gynoecium apocarpous, with 34 carpels free throughout their length, sometimes only a single carpel present; strictly New World palmsLeaf usually with only adaxial splits, sometimes with regular abaxial splits or with splits between the folds; gynoecium apocarpous, with 3 carpels free throughout their length, or free basally and with connate styles; palms of the Old and New World tropics and subtropicsPerianth biseriate; carpels 13; stamens 525Perianth uniseriate, usually 6-toothed; carpel 1; stamens 515Carpel 1Carpels 2, 3, or 4Flowers with a long stalk-like base; proximal flowers on each rachilla hermaphroditic, distal flowers staminate; stamens 6Flowers lacking a stalk-like base, all hermaphroditic; stamens 1824Stem lacking distinctive root spines; stamen filaments freeStem bearing distinctive root spines; stamen filaments connate in a ringSepals united to approximately half their length; stamens with distinct long filaments, long exserted, more than twice as long as the corolla; seed with lobed intrusion of the seed coatSepals imbricate, free nearly to base; stamens with fleshy wide filaments, only slightly exerted; seed lacking a conspicuous intrusion of seed coatBase of leaf sheath split in petiolar regionBase of leaf sheath not split in petiolar regionLeaf sheaths disintegrating into a regular fibrous network, the fibre tips spine-like and reflexed; flowers subdistichous on the rachillae; fruit white at maturity; seed deeply bilobed, the lobes themselves irregularly bilobedLeaf sheaths very rarely reflexed and spine-like; fruit brown, pink, red or black, very rarely white; seed deeply furrowed, not bilobedFlowers sessile or borne on low protuberancesFlowers borne on conspicuous stalksStamens inflexed in bud; filaments basally connate in a low ring, connective very broad, anthers sessile, oblong-elliptic in outline, extrorseStamens erect in bud; filaments more elongate, basally broadly connate in a ring equaling the perianth, free portion very slender, anthers elongate, latrorseGynoecium composed of 3 carpels free throughout their length (Subtribe Rhapidinae)Gynoecium composed of 3 carpels free at their bases but united apically in a common style (Livistoninae and unplaced Trachycarpeae)Leaf split along abaxial folds for part of their length to produce reduplicate segmentsLeaf splitting along adaxial folds or between the foldsStamen filaments freeStamen filaments connate in a ring or epipetalousLeaf sheath fibres not spine-like; leaf blade splitting along adaxial folds to varying lengths; inflorescences exserted from sheaths; seed with deep intrusion of seed coatLeaf sheath fibres spine-like; leaf blade splitting between the folds; inflorescences borne deep among the leaf sheaths; seed without deep intrusion of seed coatStems slender, cane-like; leaves divided between the folds into several-many fold segments, usually with truncate tips; perianth whorls fleshy to thick coriaceous; sepals connate; stamen filaments free, epipetalousStems stouter, scarcely cane-like; leaves divided along adaxial folds into single-fold acute or bifid segments; perianth whorls membranous to coriaceous; sepals distinct, imbricate; stamen filaments connate in an epipetalous ring or separate and epipetalousLeaf blade undivided, diamond shaped, pinnately nerved, the costa prominent; petiole and basal margins of the blade armed with hooked teeth; inflorescences each with several inflated peduncular bracts; fruit corky-warted; endosperm deeply and irregularly penetrated by seed coatLeaf blade divided, or if undivided, scarcely diamondshaped and basal margins unarmed; fruit smooth, if corkywarted, then leaf blade dividedLeaf blades divided along abaxial folds to the insertion into single-fold (rarely) or multi-fold, usually wedge-shaped segments or undividedLeaf blades divided along adaxial folds into single-fold or several-fold but not truncate segmentsInflorescence with generally long peduncle, branched only towards the tip, or branched at the very base to produce 24 ± equal long axes, also branched only towards the tip, giving the appearance of more than 1 inflorescence per axil; corolla lobes caducous at anthesis exposing the prominent androecial tube; seed coat not intrudedInflorescence branching not confined to the tip; corolla lobes not usually caducous at anthesis, very rarely tardily deciduousRachis bracts split on one side and pendulous, swordshaped; petals relatively large, flat, chaffy, without grooves on the inner surfaces, becoming strongly reflexed at anthesis; style elongate, about 3 times as long as the ovarian part of the gynoecium; flowers and fruit pedicellate; fruit with persistent chaffy calyxInflorescence bracts tubular, not splitting into swordshaped blades at anthesis; petals neither flat nor chaffy and with grooves matching anthers on inner surfaces; styles as long as the ovarian part or rarely 221/2 times as long (Serenoa)Fruit large and smooth (ca. 5 cm diameter at maturity); mesocarp spongy with short fibres near and closely adhering to the endocarp, endocarp with a triangular basal projection, rounded on 1 side, keeled on the other 3 sides; embryo eccentrically apical, endosperm with a conspicuous lobed intrusion of the seed coatFruit various, if large then usually corky-warted; endocarp smooth, not keeled, without a basal projection; embryo lateral or basal; seed coat intrusion present or absentPetioles and often margins and/or veins of leaves with stout teeth; abortive carpels apical in fruit; seeds with ruminate endospermPetioles armed or not, leaves lacking teeth; abortive carpels usually basal in fruit; seeds with homogeneous endosperm, sometimes penetrated by a lobed intrusionEndosperm intruded by seed coatEndosperm not intruded by seed coatTrunk solitary, sometimes ventricose at or near middle; petiole unarmed; androecial tube projecting beyond the corolla lobesTrunks clustered, erect or creeping and branching; petiole spiny, armed with fine or coarse teeth; androecial tube not projecting beyond the corolla lobesStems erect, densely clustered; flowers in cincinni, but paired or solitary towards the apex of the rachillae; sepals distinct or basally connate, imbricate; stamen filaments united in a basal ring, free portions short, abruptly narrowed; fruit globose; raphe short, scarcely more than half as long as the seedStems prostrate, rarely erect; flowers solitary or occasionally paired; calyx tubular, shortly 3-lobed; stamen filaments shortly united at the base, free portions gradually narrowed; fruit ellipsoidal; raphe branches extending the length of the seedSepals distinct, imbricateSepals united basallyBlade divided by deep splits into compound segments, further divided by shallow splits into single-fold segments; androecial ring conspicuous, thick, almost free at the base, filaments where separate, slender not broadly rounded; gynoecium top-shaped; fruit very large (at least 6 cm in diameter) usually corky-wartedBlade regularly divided into single-fold segments, very rarely into compound segments (L. saribus, L. exigua); androecial ring broadly scalloped apically, epipetalous; gynoecium widest above the locules, abruptly narrowed to the style; fruit small (rarely exceeding 4 cm in diameter at maturity), smoothFlowers usually unisexual and the plants dioecious, rarely hermaphroditic, borne singly or in monopodial clustersFlowers always unisexual, the plants usually monoecious, rarely dioecious, the flowers borne in groups of 3 (triads), each with a pistillate and 2 staminate flowers, or in groups derived from triads, very rarely in longitudinal lines (acervuli), even more rarely by reduction solitaryHermaphroditic palms; leaf sheaths remaining tubular, not fibrous, forming a crownshaft; flowers bisexual near the base of the rachillae, staminate distally; filaments apically embedded in anther connectivesDioecious palms; leaf sheaths splitting, the margins usually fibrous, not forming a crownshaft. Flowers always unisexual; filaments not apically embedded in anther connectivesFlowers scarcely dimorphic, the staminate and pistillate superficially similar; stamens not exceeding 20; gynoecium trilocular, triovulate; fruit with smooth epicarpFlowers strongly dimorphic; staminate flower with minute perianth lobes and usually with a very large number of stamens; pistillate flower with numerous large perianth segments; gynoecium 410 carpellate, 410 ovulate; fruit with corky-warted pericarpStigmatic remains basal in fruitStigmatic remains lateral to subapical in fruitPetals basally united; stamens 615 or more. Andes of South AmericaPetals free, valvate; stamens 6. Queensland, AustraliaPistillate flower with staminodes bearing rudimentary anthers; staminate inflorescence often multiple; prophyll incomplete. MadagascarPistillate flower with staminodes lacking rudimentary anthers; staminate inflorescence solitary; prophyll complete. Juan Fernandez IslandStaminate flowers with minute rounded anthers borne on very short filaments on an angular polyhedral receptacleStaminate flowers with elongate anthers borne on elongate filaments; receptacle not polyhedralLeaf sheaths producing abundant piassava that hangs down obscuring the upper part of the trunk; staminate flowers borne in fours or fives with floral receptacles forming conspicuous funnel-shaped pseudopedicelsLeaf sheaths fibrous but scarcely producing piassava; staminate flowers sessile or borne in groups of four on short stalks, with relatively flat or slightly rounded floral receptaclesLeaflets praemorse at the tips, with several principal ribs diverging from the base or, sometimes, leaflets divided longitudinally into several 1-ribbed parts; inflorescence with a prophyll and 2 or more large peduncular bractsLeaflets acute or bilobed, or if praemorse or longitudinally divided, the inflorescence with (0) 1 (2) large peduncular bracts (ignore small incomplete bracts)Inflorescence rarely spicate, usually branched to 12 orders; flowers sessile, not borne in pitsInflorescence spicate; flowers borne in pits and exserted at anthesis on elongated receptaclesStaminate and pistillate flowers borne on the same inflorescence in triads, or towards the tips of the rachillae, the staminate paired or solitary; inflorescences always solitary at a nodeStaminate and pistillate flowers borne on separate inflorescences (pistillate flowers sometimes accompanied by abortive lateral staminate flowers), these usually several at a node, the central pistillate, the lateral staminateStigmatic residue apical or subapical in fruit; staminate flowers with 9100 or more stamensStigmatic residue near or at the base in fruit; staminate flowers with 6 stamensInflorescence terete and decurved in bud, the numerous (10 or more) bracts falling from the terete peduncle as the inflorescence expands, the rachillae long, slender, laxly pendulous; staminate flowers ± symmetrical, closed in bud, with imbricate sepals and 920 stamens; seed with lateral embryo; stilt roots mostly slender, sparsely prickly, forming a dense cone obscuring the central stem. Costa Rica to BoliviaInflorescences somewhat dorsi-ventrally compressed and erect in bud, the 47 bracts splitting abaxially, subpersistent and erect on the dorsiventrally compressed peduncle, which becomes reflexed at anthesis; rachillae short, stout, rather stiffly spreading at anthesis, pendulous in fruit; staminate flowers ± asymmetrical, or at least angled by close packing, ± open in bud, sepals usually united basally at least briefly, stamens 20100 or more; seed with apical or excentrically apical embryo; stilt roots stout, usually densely prickly forming an open supporting cone. Costa Rica to BoliviaSlender undergrowth palmlets of lowland forest. Leaflets borne in one plane, undivided; inflorescence interfoliar, or becoming infrafoliar in fruit, erect, branching to 1 order only, long pedunculate, the bracts ± persistent; fruit small, ellipsoid or obovoid; seed with apical embryo. Guiana, Amazonian PeruRobust canopy palms of upland or montane forest; leaflets, at least in mid-leaf, divided into several segments displayed in different planes; inflorescences infrafoliar, erect or decurved in bud, branching to 2 orders; the bracts deciduous; fruit mostly globose; seed with basal embryo. Panama and northern South America, AndeanMonoecious or dioecious; flowers solitary or in acervulae, very rarely in triads; peduncular bracts usually more than 2Monoecious; flowers borne in triads of a central pistillate and two lateral staminate flowers, or as paired or solitary staminate flowers by abortion of pistillate flower, or as solitary pistillate flowers by abortion of staminate flowers; peduncular bracts rarely more than 2Trees of medium sizeUnderstorey palmsCrownshaft present; inflorescences infrafoliar in bud, rachillae pendulous. Mascarene IslandsCrownshaft lacking; inflorescences interfoliar in bud, becoming infrafoliar, often persistent, rachillae divaricate. Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Guatemala and BelizeDioecious understory palmsMonoecious, flowers in acervulae. Southern Mexico, Central America, and northwestern South AmericaPeduncular bracts several, flowers solitary or rarely in curved lines, sepals and petals free or connate, endocarp hard. Central Mexico to Brazil and BoliviaPeduncular bracts 1, both staminate and pistillate flowers in acervulae, sepals and petals always connate, endocarp membranous. Amazonian PeruGynoecium with 3 or more locules and ovules; fruit never lobed; endocarp very hard, with 3 or more poresGynoecium with 1 or 3 locules and ovules; fruit sometimes lobed; endocarp various, if very hard, lacking clearly defined poresPrickly palms, armed in some or all parts with soft to mostly stout spines, or when rarely unarmed (Bactris spp.), then the perianth of pistillate flowers with connate petals; endocarp with pores at or above the middle, the pores more-or-less deeply impressed in the endocarp except rarely in Acrocomia, usually covered by or plugged with fibres adherent to the endocarp, lacking a clearly demarcated and visible operculum; fruit (?)always 1-seeded; endosperm always homogeneousUnarmed palms except for the sometimes sharply toothed petiole margin; corolla of pistillate flowers always of broadly imbricate petals; endocarp with pores above, at, or below the middlePetals of pistillate flowers distinct and broadly imbricate, or if sometimes partially connate basally and with an adnate staminodal tube, then at least the margins free and imbricate; pistillate sepals distinct or connate; staminate flowers with distinct sepals and the petals distinct and valvate or adnate basally to the short floral receptacle then free and valvate; stamen filaments inflexed at the apex in bud, the anthers dorsifixed and versatile; fruit with abundant short fibres in the mesocarp, these strongly adherent to the smooth or only very shallowly pitted endocarp; staminate flowers borne lateral to the pistillate in basal triads on the rachillae, immediately above the triads in pairs, or mostly or entirely singly and subtended by membranous bractlets forming cells resembling those of a honeycomb. Cuba and Mexico to ArgentinaPetals of pistillate flowers connate 1/31/2 their length in a campanulate tube with prominent spreading or erect, valvate lobes, or more than 1/2 their length in an urceolate, briefly 3-lobed, 3-toothed or even truncate tube; sepals of the pistillate flowers distinct and imbricate or connate in a shallow to deep cupule; staminate flowers and inflorescences various; fruit lacking abundant short fibres adherent to the endocarpLeaflets praemorse; pistillate petals connate 1/31/2 their length in a campanulate tube with prominent valvate lobes; staminodes connate and adnate to the corolla tube basally, but distinct or continued in a free, 36-lobed or -toothed or truncate tube, sometimes nearly equalling the stigmas above; staminate flowers with stamen filaments erect, the basifixed anthers often sagittate basally; pistillode evident. Lesser Antilles, South America from Brazil to Peru and BoliviaLeaflets acute, or very rarely praemorse; pistillate petals connate beyond the middle or completely connate in a 3- lobed, 3-toothed, or truncate, urceolate or tubular corolla, lobes not spreading when developed; staminodes distinct or united in a short tube but not adnate to the corolla; staminate flowers with stamen filaments erect or inflexed at the apex or from nearly the middle in bud; pistillode usually lackingStaminate flowers often associated with the pistillate in triads basally or along the upper part of the rachilla but above these triads, then paired or generally solitary and densely aggregated in a distinct terminal portion of the rachilla, each pair of flowers or each flower subtended by a prominent bracteole adnate to or coherent with adjacent bractlets to form a cupule, sometimes as high as the flowers; stamen filaments inflexed at the apex in bud; anthers dorsifixed, versatile. Mexico to BrazilStaminate flowers not densely aggregated in a distinct terminal portion of the rachilla but associated with the pistillate in triads or irregularly interspersed among the triads and subtended by short, distinct bracteolesErect plants; upper pinnae not modified reflexed climbing organs; flowers all or nearly all borne in triads or the staminate more numerous and irregularly interspersed among triads; stamen filaments inflexed at the apex or from nearly the middle in bud; anthers mostly dorsifixed, versatile; peduncular bract inserted near the prophyll at the base of the peduncle. Cuba and Mexico to BrazilClimbing plants; upper pinnae usually very distant and modified into reflexed hook-like climbing organs (acanthophylls); flowers in triads nearly throughout the rachillae; stamen filaments erect in bud, short; anthers basifixed, erect, sagittate basally; peduncular bract often inserted above the middle of the peduncle. Mexico to BrazilPistillate flowers not or only slightly sunken in the rachillae; endocarp with pores at or below the middle; peduncular bract woodyPistillate flowers deeply sunken in the rachillae; endocarp with pores at or above the middle; peduncular bract fibrous or ± woodyPeduncular bract borne at the tip of the peduncle, circumscissile and usually deciduous at anthesis; stamens 1521, the filaments connate in a torus. MadagascarPeduncular bract borne near the prophyll insertion or higher, but not at the tip, not circumscissile, splitting abaxially but not deciduous at anthesis, persistent or marcescent; stamens 3-many, filaments variously free or connatePeduncular bract nearly smooth or finely striate but not deeply grooved; pores at or below the middle, not impressed in the endocarp, each with a clearly demarcated thin operculumPeduncular bract shallowly to deeply grooved; pores mostly near the base of and usually impressed in the endocarp, often covered by or plugged with fibres, sometimes with a clearly demarcated operculumStaminate flowers with 6 stamens; petioles usually conspicuously toothed on the margin toward the base; fruit 13-seeded. Brazil to ParaguayStaminate flowers with more than 6 stamens; petioles not toothed along the marginStaminate flowers stalked, the sepals connate with freepointed tips; stamens 1530; leaflets clustered; trunks always solitary, massive, up to 1 m in diameter or more. Coastal central ChileStaminate flowers not stalked; sepals imbricate, stamens 816; trunks slender and often multiple. Southeastern AfricaInflorescences not normally differentiated into staminate and those bearing flowers of both sexes, instead the pistillate flowers borne at the base of, in the lower part of, or nearly throughout the rachillae or the spike, the staminate flowers lateral to the pistillate and usually pedicellate in the triads, sessile and paired or solitary in the upper part of the rachilla or spike; pistillate flowers always trilocular and triovulateInflorescences normally of more than one kind on the same plant, staminate and those bearing flowers of both sexes, or sometimes also pistillate; those bearing flowers of both sexes with the pistillate flowers large and few at the base of short rachillae, the pistillate flowers accompanied by lateral fertile or abortive staminate flowers and usually with some paired or solitary staminate flowers on the distal portion of the rachillae; staminate inflorescences with longer rachillae bearing staminate flowers only; pistillate flowers sometimes with more than 3 carpels, ovules, and stigmas. Mexico and Caribbean to Brazil and BoliviaTriads separated on a usually branched inflorescence, not densely arranged; sepals of staminate flowers rarely as long as the petalsTriads densely arranged on the lower portion of a spike, the terminal portion with dense staminate flowers; bracteoles prominent; sepals of staminate flowers linear, acute to acuminate, more than half as long as the petals, the flowers rather markedly asymmetrical, lateral to the densely packed pistillate flowers on the lower portion, and densely crowded on the terminal portion of the spike; stamens 6120Stamens 1215Stamens 6Stamens ca. 15; endocarp irregularly sculptured and roughened and with 3 prominent crests at the apex, internally smooth. Ecuador and BoliviaStamens 12; endocarp deeply grooved externally, internally irregularly sculptured, the rounded protrusions penetrating the endosperm. MadagascarPistillate flowers very large, globose-ovoid, the sepals and petals rounded, without valvate apices, imbricate; staminate flowers with distinct sepals and 6 stamens; fruit very large, up to 25 cm long or more at maturity, with a very thick, fibrous mesocarp and thick, bony endocarp; seed normally 1, with liquid endosperm when young and a large, hollow interior when completely mature. PantropicalPistillate flowers ovoid or conic-ovoid, the sepals acute and ± hooded, the petals usually with conspicuously valvate apicesLeaflets densely white or pale brown tomentose abaxially, very narrow, close, and regularly arranged; epicarp and mesocarp splitting regularly and longitudinally from the apex to the base into 3 sections at maturity exposing the thin endocarp, anthers versatile, medifixed, filaments inflexed at tip. BrazilLeaflets lacking a dense covering of tomentum abaxially (very rarely thin indument present but then leaflets grouped); epicarp and mesocarp not splitting at maturity; endocarp very thick, variously beaked, ridged, minutely pitted or invaginated; anthers only rarely versatile. South America and Lesser AntillesFlowers of both sexes borne on the same inflorescence, the pistillate near the bases of rachillae; inflorescence longpeduncled, laxly branched. Brazil (Paduairi River)Staminate and pistillate flowers normally in separate inflorescences on the same plant; inflorescence shortpeduncled, densely branched. Costa Rica to Brazil (Elaeis oleifera) or West Africa (E. guineensis)Flowers always sunken in pits in the rachillae; petals of both staminate and pistillate flowers connate basally in a soft tube, the lobes valvate, styles elongate, conspicuousFlowers usually superficial; petals of staminate flowers usually ± free, valvate; petals of pistillate flowers imbricate with minutely to conspicuously valvate tipsModerate to large tree palms; leaves regularly pinnateAcaulescent or small understory palms, stem short or if tall then slender and cane-like; leaves undivided and bifid or variously divided, rarely evenly pinnateLeaflets broadly lanceolate, lacking a distinct midrib; inflorescence stout, rachis very short bearing a few (ca. 8) long pendulous rachillae; stamens numerous 36(42); petals of pistillate flower connate for 2/3 their length, tips valvate, glumaceous; staminodes ca. 15, awl-shaped where freeLeaflets narrowly lanceolate, midrib and two pairs of lateral ribs evident abaxially; inflorescence moderate, bearing many rachillae equal in length, clustered at the end of the long peduncle; stamens 6; petals of pistillate flower connate in a tube, opening by a circumscissile cap; staminodes connate forming a fleshy tube enclosing the style and stigmasBracts covering floral pits not locked into the rachilla distally but upper margins rounded, truncate, or split, lateral margins adnate to the rachilla beside the floral pits; anthers terminal on the end of the connective, inflexed in bud, thecae spread apart or parallel; ovary unilocular at anthesisBracts covering the floral pits overlapping laterally or immersed in the rachilla; anthers sagittate or thecae terminal on a bifid connective; ovary trilocular at anthesisStem solitary, short to moderate; leaves ± irregularly divided into several-fold pinnae; petioles long, slender; bracts covering the floral pits overlapping laterally, densely tomentose; filaments of stamens and staminodes united in a short tube but free and awl-shaped distallyStem solitary, usually very short or lacking; leaves bifid or with usually unequal, several-fold pinnae; petioles short; bracts covering the floral pits not overlapping laterally, glabrous or lightly hairy, not densely tomentoseLeaves bifid; bracts covering the floral pits locked in bud by a distinct rounded upper lip on the pit; theca separated on a bifid connective; staminodes free and fleshy distallyLeaves irregularly divided; floral pits without definite upper lip; anthers sagittate; staminodes united in a tube, constricted at the middle, rounded and very briefly 6-lobed distallyCrownshaft absent; fruits corky-wartedCrownshaft present or absent; fruits not corky-warted, or if corky-warted, then crownshaft presentProphyll and peduncular bract net-like, both enclosing the entire inflorescence at anthesisProphyll and peduncular bract not net-like, not enclosing the inflorescence at anthesisModerate palm with an erect stem; inflorescence branching to 2 orders; fruit at least 30 mm in diameter at maturity, covered in dry corky warts. MarquesasSlender acaulescent or short-stemmed palm; inflorescence branched to 1 order only; fruit not exceeding 12 mm in diameter, covered in corky warts on a fleshy mesocarp. New GuineaGynoecium triovulateGynoecium pseudomonomerous, rarely 2 abortive carpels presentProphyll very much smaller than the peduncular bract(s), usually obscured by the leaf sheaths, peduncular bracts large, woody, usually beakedProphyll and peduncular bracts similar, or peduncular bract lacking altogether; peduncular bract, when present, membranous or coriaceous but scarcely woody, peduncular bract not conspicuously beakedModerate palms with stems obscured with reticulate or elongate leaf sheath fibres; inflorescence with numerous spreading branches of up to the 4th order; staminate flowers rounded with 6 stamens; fruit lenticular or ovoid, stigmatic remains basalDiminutive to moderate palms with slender stems not obscured with sheath fibres; inflorescence spicate or with few approximate branches of 1, rarely 2 orders; staminate flowers pointed with 840 stamens; fruit ovoid to ellipsoid, stigmatic remains apicalAcaulescent palms of W. Africa with spicate inflorescences hidden among leavesPalms of New World and Old World but not AfricaNew World PalmsOld World PalmsPetals of pistillate flower connate basally for 1/3 length; staminodes connate in a cupule adnate to the petals; fruit with nearly basal stigmatic remainsPetals of pistillate flower distinct; staminodes not connate in a cupule adnate to the petals; fruit with apical stigmatic remainsInflorescence hippuriform (shaped like a horses tail), adaxial surface of rachis lacking branches; rachillae all lateral and abaxial, curved and pendulous; leaflets grey abaxially. Central and South AmericaInflorescence not hippuriform; leaflets concolourousInner stamens markedly adnate to the pistillode in staminate flowers; sepals of pistillate flowers connate basally; stigmatic remains basal in fruit. Costa Rica to Peru ...Inner stamens not markedly adnate to the pistillode in staminate flowers; sepals of pistillate flowers imbricate; stigmatic remains apical or lateralInflorescence spicate; stigmatic remains apical. Costa Rica to PanamaInflorescence usually branched to 1 order, very rarely spicate; stigmatic remains lateral or subapicalLeaf sheaths forming a conspicuous crownshaft; rachillae densely covered with hairs, not changing colour from flowering to fruiting; peduncle dorsiventrally compressed; prophyll and peduncular bract equal or subequal, papery, falling at anthesis. Lesser Antilles, Central and South AmericaLeaf sheaths not or very rarely forming a crownshaft; rachillae not densely covered in hairs, changing colour from white at anthesis to red at fruiting; peduncle terete; prophyll shorter than the peduncular bract, coriaceous and ± persistent. West Indies, Nicaragua south to Brazil and PeruLeaves and often stems covered with epidermal spines, these sometimes caducousUnarmed palmsLeaves with leaflets all 1-ribbed, acute or acuminate; sheaths usually forming a conspicuous crownshaft; inflorescence usually infrafoliar; peduncular bract enclosed by the prophyll, both inserted close together, splitting and usually caducous at anthesis; peduncle short, usually ± equalling the rachis; rachillae straight or coiled and twisted in bud; staminate flowers asymmetrical, sepals acuteLeaves with blades undivided, bifid, or irregularly to regularly divided into leaflets, these usually with more than 1 rib, acute, bifid or praemorse; sheaths not forming a conspicuous crownshaft; inflorescences interfoliar or becoming infrafoliar in age; peduncular bract caducous, inserted some distance from the prophyll and exceeding it; prophyll persistent; peduncle elongate, usually much longer than the rachis; rachillae straight in bud; staminate flower symmetrical or asymmetrical; sepals rounded. SeychellesFruit ovoid with apical or excentrically apical stigmatic remains; perianth ± half as high as the fruit; seed with homogeneous endosperm; triads borne in six vertical rows, each triad subtended by a saucer-like bract, the bracts obscured by the staminate flowers, but becoming conspicuous when the flowers have fallen. Mascarene IslandsFruit ellipsoid to globose, with lateral to basal stigmatic remains; perianth less than half as high as the fruit; endosperm homogeneous or ruminate; rachilla bracts not saucer-likeFruit ellipsoid with basal stigmatic remains; staminate flower open early in development with ca. 9 stamens, scarcely exceeding the petals and a conspicuous, slender, elongate, trifid pistillode. SeychellesFruit globose to ellipsoid with lateral stigmatic remains; staminate flower closed in bud, stamens 612; pistillode shorter than stamens and petalsStamens exserted at anthesis; pistillode minutely trifid; seed with homogeneous endosperm. Mascarene IslandsStamens included at anthesis; pistillode deeply trifid; seed with ruminate endosperm. Sri Lanka to CelebesLeaflets or blade praemorse; staminate flowers with petals about twice as long as the sepals; stamens 6; pistillode large, truncate, 3-angled and lobed, about as high as the petalsLeaflets or blade lobes acute or acuminate; staminate flower with petals about 4 times as long as the sepals; stamens 18 or more; pistillode not truncate, angled or lobedLeaf blade almost appearing undivided, the leaflets scarcely separated; fruit large, 22.5 cm diameter, the endocarp conspicuously ridged and crested; seed ± ridged, raphe branches anastomosing. SeychellesLeaflets clearly separated; fruit small, ca. 5 mm diameter or less; endocarp not ridged; seed not ridged, the raphe branches few, ascending. SeychellesLeaf blade usually undivided though lobed marginally, the lobes bifid; inflorescence branching to 2 orders; staminate flower asymmetrical; stamens ca. 18, the filaments tapered, anthers ± versatile; pistillode small, slender; fruit ovoid. SeychellesLeaf pinnate, with rather distant, mostly 23-ribbed acute or acuminate leaflets; inflorescence branching to 1 order; staminate flower symmetrical; stamens 4050, the filaments expanded distally, anthers not versatile; pistillode ovoid, minutely trifid; fruit subglobose. SeychellesPeduncle bearing a single large enclosing bract (prophyll); large enclosing peduncular bracts absentPeduncle bearing a prophyll and one or more rarely 2 enclosing peduncular bractsInflorescence protogynous, spicate or branched to 1 order only; rachillae bearing distichous or more rarely spirally arranged triads throughout their length. Southeast Asia to New GuineaInflorescence protandrous (in a few Areca spp. recorded as protogynous but perhaps erroneously so), spicate or branched to 13 orders; rachillae bearing triads proximally and paired or solitary, spirally arranged, distichous or unilateral staminate flowers distallyTriads usually very few in number at the base of each rachilla, rarely numerous; seed basally attached with circular hilum. Southeast Asia to Solomon IslandsTriads numerous, often occupying 3/4 the rachilla length; seed laterally attached with narrow longitudinal hilum. Indochina to West MalesiaInflorescences spicate, the spikes sometimes many in each leaf axil; flowers borne in pits or depressions; staminate flower symmetrical or nearly so; sepals rounded, imbricate; fruit with apical stigmatic remains. Moluccas to Australia and Lord Howe IslandInflorescence branched to at least one order or sometimes spicate, never multiple; flowers superficial or in pits; staminate flowers symmetrical or asymmetrical; sepals various; fruit with apical, lateral or basal stigmatic remains, if apical then flowers not in pits or inflorescences not spicatePeduncular bract inserted near the base of the peduncle, ± flattened, opening apically, shorter than and not enclosing the spike before anthesis, ± persistent and marcescent; filaments mostly inflexed; anthers dorsifixed; endocarp adherent to the seed. Moluccas to New GuineaPeduncular bract inserted at the tip of the peduncle, tubular, enclosing the spike in bud, marcescent or caducous, leaving a ruffled scar on the peduncle; filaments not inflexed, anthers basifixed; endocarp adherent or free from the seedEndocarp thick, cartilaginous, not adhering to the seed; endosperm homogeneous; staminate flower with 3070 stamens; stems solitary, stout; leaflets always 1-ribbed. Lord Howe IslandEndocarp thin, adhering to the seed; endosperm homogeneous or ruminate; staminate flower with 615 stamens; stems usually clustered and slender; leaflets 1- many ribbedSeed with ruminate endosperm, raphe extending its length, the branches reticulate; leaflets 1-ribbed. AustraliaSeed with homogeneous endosperm, raphe extending 1/3 its length or less, the branches free or anatomosing; leaflets 1-several ribbed or the blade undivided. New Guinea and AustraliaLeaflets almost always acute; inflorescences interfoliar or infrafoliar; crownshaft present or not; stigmatic remains apical, lateral or basal. MadagascarLeaflets acute or praemorse; inflorescences interfoliar or infrafoliar; crownshaft present or not; stigmatic remains various. Elsewhere in Old World, not MadagascarInflorescences unisexual, both staminate and pistillate borne on the same plant. MadagascarInflorescences bearing both staminate and pistillate flowersStamens 5259; fruit corky-warted, endocarp with a basal heart-shaped button; endosperm very shallowly ruminate; embryo apical. MadagascarStamens 36; fruit smooth; endocarp lacking a heartshaped button; endosperm homogeneous or ruminate; embryo basalFruit with apical stigmatic remains. MadagascarFruit with basal stigmatic remains. MadagascarLeaflet tips or leaf margin praemorseLeaflet tips acuteSmall undergrowth palms usually lacking a crownshaft; inflorescence with slender rachillae, flowers borne in usually rather distant pits, emerging one at a time; fruit with basal stigmatic remains. Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and BorneoSmall to large palms, always with a crownshaft; rachillae lacking pits; fruit with apical stigmatic remainsStaminate flowers symmetrical, bullet-shaped; pistillode usually large and ± bottle-shaped. Philippines to Papuasia and W. PacificStaminate flower asymmetrical, not bullet-shaped; pistillode absent, obscure or very short, not bottle-shapedPinnae of juvenile leaves entire, cuneate, several-nerved; pinnae of mature leaves divided longitudinally into 717 linear segments; peduncular bract similar to and included within the prophyll, prophyll and peduncular bract caducousPinnae cuneate, truncate, or oblique in both juvenile and mature leaves, prophyll and peduncular bract marcescent; peduncular bract similar to or longer than the prophyll, and inserted well above and protruding from the prophyllStem slightly bottled; primary leaflets regularly arranged, divided into 1117 segments, lacking white woolly scales abaxially; outer endocarp with large, conspicuously branched, tough black fibres; endosperm homogeneous. Queensland, AustraliaStem moderate to slender, not bottled, primary leaflets clustered, divided into 79 segments, bearing white woolly scales abaxially; outer endocarp with sparsely branched, thin, terete, straw-coloured fibres; endosperm ruminate. Queensland, AustraliaSeed terete in cross-sectionSeed angled or grooved in cross-sectionLeaflet tips bifid; endosperm deeply ruminate. Palawan and Northern BorneoLeaflet tips not bifid; endosperm homogeneous or ruminatePeduncular bract terete and prominently rostrate, inserted well above and becoming exserted from the prophyllPeduncular bract similar to and included within the prophyllProphyll caducous; inflorescence axes white at anthesis. SamoaProphyll persistent; inflorescence axes green at anthesis. Halmahera, Ceram, Ambon, to New Guinea and the Solomon IalandsLeaflets wide in the middle or throughout, moderate to rather short, chaffy ramenta present abaxially near the base of the midribs; mesocarp with several series of more-orless round fibrous bundles next to endocarp. Vanuatu and FijiLeaflets narrow, long, lacking chaffy ramenta on midribs; mesocarp with a single series of large, flat fibrous bundles closely adherent to the endocarp. Northern Territory, AustraliaSeed irregularly angled in cross-section, acute; fruit often angled and tapered at both ends; peduncle elongate; peduncular bract inserted well above and exserted from the prophyll. Fiji Islands, SamoaSeed 35 sulcate in cross-section, acute and truncate or pointed on both ends; fruit ovoid; peduncle short, peduncular bract similar to and included in the prophyllPinnae 3-pronged at the apex, the centre prong the longest; fruit very strongly 5-angled when dry; the seed with 5 acute ridges; anther with connective tanniniferous, protruding basally from anthers or not sagittate basally, basifixed. Eastern New GuineaPinnae acute, oblique, truncate, or 2-pronged and concave apically; fruit rounded or irregularly ridged when dry; seed with 5 rounded or irregular ridges; anthers dorsifixed, sagittate basallySeed pointed apically, with irregular ridges; endocarp very thick, hard; pistillode always lageniform. New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon IslandsSeed rounded apically and with 5 rounded ridges; endocarp thin, fibrous or if somewhat bony then not elaborated and staminate flowers with short, conic-ovoid or lageniform pistillodePistillode lageniform; endocarp generally thin, fibrous. Moluccas, New Guinea, northeastern Australia, DEntrecasteaux and Louisiade Archipelagos, Solomon IslandsPistillode short, conic-ovoid, rarely lageniform; endocarp bony. MicronesiaInflorescence with peduncular bract distinctly shorter than the prophyll; rachillae bearing spirally arranged triads in the proximal 1/2 3/4, staminate flowers only distally. Sri LankaInflorescence with peduncular bract ± the same size as the prophyll, completely sheathing the inflorescence in bud; rachillae bearing opposite and decussate or whorled triads, rarely triads spiral, throughout ± their entire length. Papuasia and W. PacificFlowers almost always borne in pitsFlowers superficialPits not laterally compressed, with prominent rounded lips; staminate flowers lacking hairy pedicels; stamens 615; stigmatic remains apical; seeds not ridged and grooved. Malay Peninsula, New Guinea and Solomon IslandsPits laterally compressed, lacking prominent rounded lips; staminate flower with long hairy pedicels; stamens 6; fruit with stigmatic remains in lower 1/4; seeds ridged and grooved. Mainland India and Nicobar IslandsFruit with stigmatic remains basal or lateral. New CaledoniaFruit with stigmatic remains apical, subapical or in the upper ca. 1/2Stamens 6, didymous; pistillode squat, capitate. New CaledoniaStamens 612, elongate; pistillode columnar. New CaledoniaInflorescence in bud with twisted and coiled rachillae; peduncle very short; lower branches markedly divaricate; endosperm ruminate. Nicobar Islands, Malay Peninsula, Moluccas to Solomon IslandsInflorescence in bud with straight rachillae; peduncle various, the lower branches rarely divaricate; endosperm homogeneous or ruminateProphyll almost always incompletely sheathing; endocarp often heavily ornamented. New CaledoniaProphyll completely sheathing; endocarps smooth or fibrous, not heavily ornamented (except in 1 species of Heterospathe)Fruit usually with apical stigmatic remainsFruit usually with lateral stigmatic remains; endocarp smooth or pitted, not sculptured. New CaledoniaInflorescences infrafoliar, apparently unisexual. Lord Howe IslandInflorescences inter- or infrafoliar, bisexualStilt-rooted palmsPalms lacking obvious stilt-rootsEndocarp and seed smooth. New CaledoniaSeed usually heavily ornamented. New Britain, Solomon Islands, Fiji and VanuatuSeed terete ovoid, ellipsoidalSeed irregular in cross-section, externally angled or intricately ridged, furrowed and sculpturedLeaf sheaths split opposite the petiole in bud, not forming a crownshaft; inflorescence interfoliar in bud, eventually infrafoliar; peduncle elongate, much exceeding the rachis; prophyll and peduncular bract persistentLeaf sheaths not split in bud, forming a crownshaft; inflorescence infrafoliar; peduncle shorter than the rachis; prophyll and peduncular bract deciduousAnther locules lacking a conspicuous central tanniniferous area, pistillode much exceeding stamens in bud; fruit surface minutely pebbled. New CaledoniaAnther locules with a conspicuous central taniniferous area, pistillode slightly shorter than stamens in bud; fruit surface not minutely pebbled. New CaledoniaPalms lacking crownshafts. Philippines to Papuasia and Western PacificPalms with crownshaftsInflorescence with prophyll much shorter than peduncular bract(s), or peduncular bract exserted far beyond the prophyll tipInflorescence with prophyll not markedly shorter than peduncular bract(s)Small undergrowth palm; 1 peduncular bract; staminate flower bullet-shaped; fruit with strictly apical stigmatic remains. New GuineaTall tree palms; peduncular bracts 1 or 2; staminate flower not bullet-shaped; fruit with apical or eccentrically apical stigmatic remains. W. PacificInflorescence bearing a prophyll and two large completely enclosing peduncular bracts, further incompletely sheathing bracts also present; distal staminate flowers borne in horizontal pairsInflorescence bearing a prophyll and a single large completely enclosing peduncular bract; distal staminate flowers borne in vertical rather than horizontal pairs. Fiji and VanuatuRachillae glabrous; staminate flower strongly asymmetrical; fruit large, at least 5 cm long at maturity. VanuatuRachillae densely tomentose; staminate flower only slightly asymmetrical; fruit not exceeding 2 cm long at maturity. Ryukyu IslandsStaminate flowers with basally connate sepals or widely separated distinct, not imbricate sepals. New Zealand and S.W. PacificStaminate flowers with distinct imbricate sepalsTriads borne throughout ± the entire length of the rachilla; staminate flowers with 6 stamens and pistillode rounded at base. New Zealand, Chatham, Norfolk and Raoul IslandsTriads borne in the basal part of the rachillae only, paired or single staminate flowers distally; staminate flowers with 910 stamens and pistillode cylindrical throughout. Lord Howe IslandInflorescence lacking branches adaxially except at apex, branched to 1 order only and the lower branches ± ascending, not divaricate from the rachis at a 90° angle. MascarenesInflorescences not lacking branches adaxially, branched to 23 orders, lower branches spreading rather than ascendingPalms often stilt-rooted; stigmatic remains apical, subapical or lateral; stamens 6. W. PacificPalms not stilt-rooted; stigmatic remains strictly apical; stamens 1255. New Guinea, New Caledonia, AustraliaEndosperm ruminateEndosperm homogeneousStaminate flower with 1214 stamens; fruit not exceeding 2 cm in diameter; hilum basal. AustraliaStaminate flower with 2433 or more stamens; fruit exceeding 4 cm in diameter; hilum lateral. New Guinea, Moluccas to Bougainville, cultivated elsewherePistillode lacking. New CaledoniaPistillode conical, elongate or trifidTall moderately robust palms with robust stiff paniculate almost broom-like inflorescences, branches not divaricate; staminate flowers asymmetrical or symmetrical with pistillode conical, columnar or trifid, shorter than or equaling stamens in bud. New CaledoniaSlender palm with small inflorescences with strongly divaricate branches; staminate flowers asymmetrical with prominent columnar pistillode, more than half as long as stamens in bud. New Caledonia