SEPASAL Database
Boswellia sacra Flueck. [1342]
Burseraceae
Flowering branch of Boswellia sacra
SYNONYMS
Boswellia carteri Birdw.
Boswellia carteri Birdw. var. subintegra Engl.
Boswellia carteri Birdw. var. undulato-crenata Engl.
Boswellia undulato-crenata (Engl.)Engl.
VERNACULAR NAMES
Unspecified language - morhr [2255]; (Egypt) [oleo-gum-resin] - luban dakar [1400]; (Somalia) - mohor ad [1095], mohor madow [1095] [1342], mohor add [1342]; Arabic - maqar [1342], muger [1342], mgajrot [1342], mohor [1342], mogharah [1342], maghrayt [1342], makkar [1342], makker [1342], magher [1342], mgor [1342], mgar [1342], mogher [1342], makur [1342], liban [1365], bakhor [1368]; Arabic (Dhofar) - mughur [1342] [1521], sajerat alluban [1593], mugereh [1593]; Arabic (Dhofar) [oleo-gum-resin] - luban [1593]; Arabic (Oman) - mughur [1521]; Arabic (Yemen) - mohr madow [1337]; Arabic [resin] - lubban, nejdi, luban sceheri, shazri, negedi, najdi, luban sheheri, luban, shazari, shabi, luban bedowi [1342], sheehaz [2449]; Arabic [tree] - mogar [1342] [2449]; Jibbali - megerot [1593]; Jibbali [oleo-gum-resin] - sahaz [1593]; Somali - morhr, mohor lub, mohr madow [685], bejo [1126], lufod [1342], mohr madow [1342], mohr madow [1342], moxor madow [1342], mohr meddu [1342], moxor add [1342], mohor lab [1342], mohr meddau [1342], mohr add [1342], mohr add [1342]; Somali [resin] - beeyo, beio, beyo [1095] [1342] [2449]; Somali [tree] - mohor [1342] [2449]; Trade name [gum] - frankincense [1338], luban [1365] [1368]; Trade name [oleo-gum-resin] - olibanum.
DISTRIBUTION
Native - Ethiopia (doubtfully present) [1758], Somalia (N.) [875] [1342], Oman (Dhofar; S.W.) [1342] [1521], Yemen (Hadhramaut; S.) [1342].
DESCRIPTORS
DESCRIPTION
Primary Producer; Terrestrial; Tree [1342]; Perennial; Erect; Single Stemmed [1593], Multistemmed [1593]. Unarmed - unspecified parts [1342]; Fragrant - gum/resins [1338]. Plant Height 2-8 m [2255].
CLIMATE
Annual Rainfall 100-500 mm.
SOILS
Alkaline; Boulders/Rocky [1095], Gravels/Stony [1095]; Limestone Parent Material.
HABITAT
Valleys [1368], Cliffs [1342], Hillsides/Slopes [1342], Gullies[1368], Crevices/Fissures/Fractures [1095]; Woodland [1095], Shrubland [1095].
Altitude <= 1230 m a.s.l. [1342]
CHEMICAL ANALYSES
Unspecified Analyses - gum/resins [1594] [1340] [1337], Essential Oil Analyses - gum/resins [1337] [1400]; Polysaccharides - gum/resins [1405] [1365]; Monoterpenoids - gum/resins [1405], Sesquiterpenoids - gum/resins [1368], Diterpenoids - gum/resins [1343], Triterpenoids (unspecified) - gum/resins [1405] [1400].
PRODUCTION AND VALUE
Commercial Value; Traded Globally Between Continents; Potential Medicine Uses Coded [1367].
USES
FOOD
- 'Roots' (debarked 'roots', raw [1354] [1593]; debarked 'roots',beverages [1593])
FOOD ADDITIVES
- Exudates (resin, infusions/tisanes [1368]; gum, wines, other additive types [1593])
ANIMAL FOOD
- Unspecified Parts (camels, browse [1095])
- Fertile Plant Parts (flowers, goats, fodder [1354] [1593];fruits, mammals, fodder [1593])
- Aerial Parts (leaves [1354]; leaves, fodder [1593])
BEE PLANTS [1593]
MATERIALS
- Unspecified Materials (exudates, perfumes [1521])
- Gums/Resins [1405] [1593] (exudates, resins, incense [875];gums, depilatories [1354]; gums, hair oil/lacquer [1354]; gums, walls [1354]; gums, adhesives [1354]; gums, illuminants [1354]; gums, cleansers [1354]; gums, skin cosmetics [1354] [1593]; gums, tattoos [1354]; gums, coverings; gums, perfumes [506] [1338] [1354] [1368] [1593]; gums, other products [1365] [1400]; gums, incense [506] [1354] [1368]; gums [1352] [1354] [1593]; exudates, perfumes [1405]; exudates, incense [1397]; exudates [1405])
- Tannins/Dyestuffs (inner bark, dyes, clothes, brown [1354]; inner bark, tannins, brown [1354])
- Essential Oils (other exudate parts, detergents [1400]; resin, soap [1400]; resin, skin lotions/creams [1400]; resin, perfumes [1400])
- Other Materials/Chemicals (bark, splints [1354]; bark, guns [1354]; bark, fish bait [1593])
FUELS
- Miscellaneous Fuels (exudates, incendiary [1593])
SOCIAL USES
- Smoking Materials/Drugs (exudates, intoxicants [1593]; gum, other smoking materials/drugs [1593])
- 'Religious' Uses (exudates, ritual/religion/magic [1354] [1368] [1405] [1593])
NON-VERTEBRATE POISONS
- Bacteria (resin [1400])
- Arthropoda (other exudate parts, Culicidae (mosquitoes), repellent [2454]; other exudate parts, Psychodidae (sand flies), repellent [2454])
MEDICINES
- Unspecified Medicinal Disorders (fruits, goats [1354]; fruits, humans, oral ingestion [1354]; bark, humans, teas [1354]; leaves, humans [1368]; gum, mammals [1354]; gum, humans [1095] [1354] [1593]; fruits, humans [1354]; fruits, mammals [1354]; gum, humans, prophylactic [1354]; gum, humans, palliative [1354]; gum, humans, fumigants [1354]; gum, mammals, prophylactic [1354]; gum, mammals, palliative [1354]; gum, mammals, fumigants [1354]; gum, humans, oral ingestion [1593])
- Abnormalities (bark, humans, skin, oedemas, ointments [1354]; exudates, humans, skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue, lesions, poultices [1593])
- Circulatory System Disorders (humans, haemorrhoids, suppositories [1593])
- Digestive System Disorders (flower buds, humans [1354]; fruits, humans [1354]; gum, humans, teeth, caries [1354]; flower buds, humans, oral ingestion [1354]; fruits, humans, oral ingestion [1354]; gum, humans, purgative [1368]; resin, humans, stomach, stomachic [1340]; gum, humans [1354]; exudates, humans, teeth [1593]; exudates, humans, gums [1593]; leaves, mammals, diarrhoea [1593]; debarked 'roots', humans, stomach [1593])
- Genitourinary System Disorders (gum, humans, diuretic [1368] [1400]; resin, humans, emmenagogue [1400]; resin, humans, diuretic [1340]; exudates, humans, other genitourinary system disorders/effects, oral ingestion [1593]; exudates, humans, kidney stones, oral ingestion [1593]; gum, humans, female fertility, vaginal pessary [1593])
- Infections/Infestations (resin, humans, syphilis [1340]; antimicrobial [1354]; gum, humans, respiratory system, colds [1354]; gum, humans, eyes, infections [1354]; gum, humans, gonorrhoea [1408]; resin, humans, schistosomiasis [1340]; infructescences, humans, throat, infections [1593]; other exudate parts, humans, malaria, prophylactic, fumigants [2454])
- Inflammation (gum, humans, breasts [1354]; resin, inflammation [1367]; exudates, humans, respiratory mucosae [1593]; exudates, humans, larynx [1593])
- Injuries (bark, humans, wounds [1354]; bark, humans, burns [1354]; other exudate parts, humans, haemostatic [1593]; gum, humans, wounds, external applications [1593]; other exudate parts, humans, bites (non-venomous), prophylactic, fumigants [2454])
- Mental Disorders (gum, humans, sedative [1593]; gum, humans, amnesia [1368]; exudates, humans, internal applications [1593]; exudates, humans, hysteria [1593])
- Metabolic System Disorders (pollen, humans, gout [1593])
- Muscular-Skeletal System Disorders (humans, rheumatism [1340]; gum, humans, bones, fractures [1354]; bark, humans, bones, fractures [1354]; exudates, humans, rheumatism [1340])
- Nervous System Disorders (gum, humans [1340] [1368]; exudates, humans, epilepsy, oral ingestion [1593]; exudates, humans, stimulant [1593])
- Pain (bark, humans, muscles [1354]; gum, humans, teeth [1354];gum, humans, head, analgesic [1354]; gum, humans, eyes [1354]; exudates, humans [1593]; gum, humans, abdomen, oral ingestion [1593]; gum, humans, chest, oral ingestion [1593])
- Pregnancy/Birth/Puerpuerium Disorders (bark, humans, morning sickness [1354]; gum, humans, pregnancy [1368]; gum, humans, birth [1354]; gum, humans, post partum [1354]; gum, humans, puerperium [1354]; fruits, mammals, pregnancy [1354]; gum, humans, fumigants [1354]; exudates, humans, labour, oral ingestion [1593])
- Respiratory System Disorders [1400] (resin, humans, asthma [1400]; resin, humans, coughs [1400]; gum, humans [1593]; exudates, humans [1400]; exudates, humans, other medicine types [1593]; exudates, humans, respiratory mucosae, fumigants [1593]; exudates, humans, respiratory mucosae, oral ingestion [1593]; gum, humans, coughs, oral ingestion [1593])
- Sensory System Disorders (other exudate parts, humans, eyes, external applications [1354]
[1593]; gum, humans, eyes, washes [1593]; other exudate parts, humans, blindness, external applications [1593])
- Skin/Subcutaneous Cellular Tissue Disorders (bark, humans, sores, ointments [1354]; gum, humans, skin, antiseptic [1354]; bark, humans, other skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue disorders/effects, ointments [1354]; exudates, humans, skin of specific areas, external applications [1593]; exudates, humans, pustules, poultices [1593]; other exudate parts, humans, disinfectant [1593]; exudates, humans, carbuncles, ointments [1593]; exudates, humans, boils, ointments [1593]; exudates, humans, ulcers, ointments [1593]; gum, humans, ulcers, external applications [1593]; gum, humans, skin, external applications [1593])
NOTES
NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY
B. bhau-dajiana Birdw. has been labelled by some authors as a synonym of B. carteri Birdw. Vollesen, however, in his account of the family for the Flora of Ethiopia, refers to it as a separate taxon, endemic to N.E. Somalia [1758]
Synonyms, B. carteri: The frankincense trees in Arabia, called B. carteri by Birdwood and many subsequent authors, were previously regarded as distinct from B. sacra in Somalia. Birdwood stated that the difference was that in the Somalian plants "the stamens are inserted into the sides of the disc" and not at the base of the disc. Monod doubted the correctness of the stamen difference but still maintained B. sacra and B. carteri as distinct species, mainly on the basis of differences in habit. However, he knew the habit of the Somalian plants only through the photographs reproduced by Hepper ([519] cited in [1354]) and the variation in Somalia is actually considerable. The habit seems to be at least in part environmentally conditioned - a swelling of the trunk being better developed in plants growing on rocks. This suggests that only one species, B. sacra distributed both in Somalia and Arabia, is involved [519] [1342]
VERNACULAR NAMES
(Somalia) - mohor madow, mohor ad: Communicants in the Mait area gave varying answers when asked the difference between these two names; some people said the terms distinguished between the colour of the resin, and others between plants growing on different types of rocks. There are no morphological differences between mohor madow and mohor ad, and there can be no doubt that they belong to the same species. It is suggested that in this area the two names may be used to distinguish between the trees on the main escarpment and those on the coastal hills. The distance between these hills and the main escarpment often exceeds 10 km [1095]
(Somalia) - mohor madow, mohor add: Somalis often make a distinction between these. In the area near Mait the names designate forms of "mohor" growing in different habitats: "mohor madow" inhabit the hills of the subcoastal zone and "mohor add" the lower slopes of the main escarpment further inland. Near Candala, further east, "mohor madow" or "lufod" was used for trees of B. sacra growing at c. 700 m together with B. frereana Birdw., while "mohor add" was used for trees at higher altitudes [1342]
Somali - beyo: Mainly refers to the gum but is sometimes used to refer to the tree [1095]
Somali - lufod: Sometimes used to designate trees of B. sacra growing with B. frereana Birdw. [1342]
Somali - mohor: This name (or variants) is often combined with various adjectives to designate the habitat, quality etc. of the tree, giving vernacular names such as mohor add (add = white), mohor madow (or meddu) (madow = black), mohor san (san = good) or mohor lab or lub (lab = male) [1342]
Trade name (India) [gum]: Nowadays in India, the luban sold in the markets is usually not the resin of B. sacra but the products of Styrax benzoin Dryand. from Indonesia or S. tonkinensis Craib ex Hartwich from Thailand, both generally known as gum benzoin [1365]
Trade name [gum] - frankincense: Derived from the Old French "franc encens", meaning pure incense or, more literally, free lighting [1338]
Trade name [oleo-gum-resin]: Frankincense and olibanum are commonly used names for the oleo-gum-resin of Boswellia trees.
The terms are used in trade and in many regions of the world
Trade name [oleo-gum-resin]: The resinous exudate of B. carteri (B. sacra) is regarded as the "true olibanum" [1365]
DISTRIBUTION
Arabia: B. sacra extends from the Hasik area in Dhofar (Oman), west to near Habban (46.30'E) in the eastern part of the Hadhramaut (Yemen). B. sacra is the only species found in Arabia [1593]
Arabia: B. sacra is the only Boswellia species native to Arabia [1593]
Arabia: The distribution extends eastwards to Ras Hasik in Dhofar (Oman), where it is most characteristic of the upper desert plateau country behind the coastal monsoon zone, although some trees were reported by Mandaville along the coastal slopes [1342]
Ethiopia: Vollesen, in his account of the family for the Flora of Ethiopa, considers that B. sacra is likely to be present in Ethiopia because it occurs just east of the border in N. Harerge, Somalia [1758]
Somalia: The southernmost locality in Somalia is the Karkar Mountains between Gardo and Iscusciuban, 800 m. See note on 'Variation' under DESCRIPTION, below, for more specific localities [1342]
Yemen: Within Yemen, the tree is more common in the moister coastal areas of southern Yemen
DESCRIPTION
Bark: Papery, peeling bark [1593]
Exudates: All parts highly resinous [1593]
Flowers: In axillary racemes, crowded at the end of branches; racemes up to 10 cm. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals 5, yellow-white, spreading. Stamens 10. Ovary surrounded by a fleshy disc [1395]
Fruits: Capsule, obovoid, 8-12 mm, 3-5 angled, opening by 3-5 valves [1395]
Habit: Trees have single trunks or, more commonly, several from base [1593]
Leaves: Clustered at tips of branches, imparipinnate; leaflets opposite, 6-8 pairs, oblong, margin crenate, tomentose [1395]
Stems: The trees adhere to boulders of rock-faces by means of a cushion- or disk-like swelling at the base of the trunk. This swollen base seems to be important in stabilising the tree and is best developed in trees growing on very steep or exposed rocks but less so, or not at all, in the occasional trees which grow in gravel or in planted specimens [1095]
Stems: Young branches densely tomentose [1593]
Variation: The variation within B. sacra mainly concerns habit, shape and indumentum of leaflets, amount of branching of inflorescences, and shape of fruits. One extreme found in Somalia is of comparatively tall trees growing on rocks, with a distinct trunk, swollen at the base, leaflets which are tomentose beneath and distinctly serrate-crenate, scarcely undulate and comparatively narrow, more or less paniculate inflorescences and usually narrow fruits. A population with such characters occurs along the northern slopes of the Al Mado range between Galgala and Mait. The population in the Karkar Mountains, a much drier area, is in marked contrast. The trees grow in stony soil, are lower and branch from the scarcely swollen base, have markedly undulate, broader and less hairy leaflets, flowers often in simple racemes, and broader fruits. There are various intermediate populations in north-east Somalia, while the trees from the westernmost population in Somalia are morphologically (vegetative parts known only - Gillet 4662 [2454]) closer to the population in Karkar than to the more adjacent one in Mado. The trees on the Arabian Peninsula are generally branched from the base which is apparently never markedly swollen, the leaflets are more or less undulate and sometimes serrate-crenate, the inflorescences vary from racemes to panicles and the fruits vary from narrow (Hadhramaut, Yemen) to broad (Dhofar, Oman) [1342]
IDENTIFICATION
Characterised by alternate, pinnately compound leaves and white or pale pink flowers in axillary racemes [1405]
History: The prevailing view in Europe up to the 1830s was that frankincense was a resin of a species of Juniperus [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: A rapid and reliable test for the identification of the botanical origin of olibanum has been developed. Thin layer chromatograms for B. carteri (B. sacra) are shown by Hairfield et al. (1984) [506]. They are easily distinguished from those of B. papyrifera (Delile)Hochst. ex A.Rich. and B. serrata Roxb. The B. carteri chromatograms are very similar to those produced by "Somalian olibanum" obtained in the U.S.A. [506]
The affinity of B. sacra seems closest to B. papyrifera (Delile)Hochst. ex A.Rich. from which it differs mainly in its non-precocious flowers, white (not reddish) petals, 3-4(-5)-locular (not consistently 3-locular) and smaller fruits (8-12 mm versus at least 15-20 mm long when normally developed) [1342]
FOOD - 'ROOTS'
Debarked 'roots', beverages: The inner white root of a young plant was chewed for the thirst-quenching sweet liquid it provided [1593]
Debarked 'roots', raw: Tiny plants can be pulled up and the peeled root chewed as a combined food and drink [1354]
FOOD ADDITIVES - EXUDATES
Gum, wines, other additive types: Frankincense was added to wine as a perfume, but drinking too much of this mixture was said to cause madness and even death [1593]
Resin, infusions: In eastern Saudi Arabia the gum is added to coffee. It is not clear from the reference whether this is done for the flavour or purely as a palatable alternative to chewing the gum for its medicinal benefits [1368]
ANIMAL FOOD - FERTILE PLANT PARTS
Fruits, mammals, fodder: Fruits were gathered as a tasty treat for favoured animals [1593]
ANIMAL FOOD - AERIAL PARTS
Leaves, fodder: Extremely important in the past, especially in drier areas, B. sacra leaves were the favoured fodder for weak or parturient livestock. Those at work tapping the frankincense would also fill sacks with leaves and send them back to the livestock encampments[1593]
BEE PLANTS
The flowers have been observed to be popular with bees in Dhofar [1593]
MATERIALS
Oleo-gum-resin properties: The frankincense of commerce consists of ovoid or pear-shaped tears, or stalactitic fragments, varying much in size, usually pale yellow, but often with a reddish or greenish tinge. They are brittle, easily broken with the fingers, and form a plastic mass when chewed. The taste is slightly bitter and the odour fragrant [1397]
MATERIALS - GUMS/RESINS
Exudates, incense: Frankincense is used mainly in the manufacture of incense of which it is regarded as an essential constituent. Incense is employed particularly in the Roman Catholic and the Greek Churches. It is also employed in fumigating powders and pastilles [1397]
Exudates, perfumes: The odour of frankincense is described as fresh balsamic, dry and resinous, slightly green, with a fruit topnote and a diffusive note of unripe apple peel. These characteristics make it valuable for uses in Oriental bases, ambres, 'powder' perfumes, floral perfumes, citrus colognes, spice blends, violet perfumes, male fragrances etc., often balanced with spice oils, muguet bases, woody notes and other balsamic notes. It is a minor component of many well-known modern perfumes and aromatherapy oils [1405]
Exudates: B. sacra is the main source of frankincense today (1995) [1405]
Frankincense: Frankincense is a natural oleo-gum-resin, comprising essential oils, water soluble gums and alcohol soluble resins, the value of which lies in its fragrance and flavour. It is still used in perfumery because of the characteristic odour which is predominantly due to mixtures of complex mono and sesquiterpenes
Gums, adhesives: In Dhofar, soft gum was applied to cracks or chips in utensils. It hardened to make supple waterproof mends [1354]
Gums, cleansers: Frankincense was regularly used to clean the wooden or clay vessels formerly used for storing water in Dhofar. They would be scrubbed out, and a smoking frankincense burner would be lowered inside, more gum being dropped in at intervals. The container was then securely covered and left until thoroughly impregnated with the smoke. Fresh water would then be poured in, and would gain a distinctive fragrance and flavour [1354]
Gums, cosmetics: In Dhofar, the soot of the gum was collected in a pot held inverted over the burning gum and then scraped off and used to make eye antimony (or to stretch a small amount of the costly imported antimony) [1354]
Gums, hair oil/lacquer: In Dhofar, women combed their hair hard back from the face and the soft gum was smoothed over it to hold it in place and give the hair a smooth, gleaming appearance [1354]
Gums, illuminants: In Dhofar, lumps of fresh, moist frankincense were moulded into a rough cone-shape, and one or two of these would be ignited as darkness fell - this gum "candle" burned steadily throughout the night providing minimal light and keeping at bay the dangerous animals and malevolent spirits which roamed the night [1354]
Gums, incense: In Dhofar, frankincense burners, from the large ones that can be borne on the head during a procession to tiny shallow bowls that burn only a granule or two of the gum, are made of clay [1354]
Gums, incense: Olibanum, thought to include that from B. sacra, is used in Roman Catholic, Episcopal and Eastern Orthodox churches in the U.S.A. [506]
Gums, incense: Recently, electric incense burners have appeared on the market in the Middle East [1368]
Gums, other products: The ancient Egyptians used the olibanum as an ingredient of the embalming fluid for their dead [1365] [1400]
Gums, perfumes, cleansers: In Dhofar, wooden fumigating tripods are used to perfume and fumigate clothing - a bowl of burning gum or incense is placed at the base of the tripod and the clothes are draped in layers above [1354]
Gums, perfumes: Frankincense forms the base of a perfume called "Amourage" [519]
Gums, perfumes: In Dhofar, dried gum was finely powdered and mixed with ammonia salts or with other ground spices to produce a delicate talcum powder used to perfume and soften the skin [1354]
Gums, perfumes: Luban is widely used in most Arabic homes as a perfume for clothes, hair and rooms. In many families its use is now restricted to traditional festivities, such as weddings and religious celebrations. This implies that the use of frankincense is less common than it used to be [1368]
Gums, perfumes: Olibanum, thought to include that from B. sacra, has an important use as a fixative in perfumes, soaps, creams, lotions and detergents in the U.S.A. [506]
Gums, perfumes: The odour of frankincense is described as fresh-balsamic, dry and resinous, slightly green, with a fruit topnote and a diffusive note of green, unripe apple peel. Frankincense is used by perfumers as an absolute (by alcohol extraction), oil or resinoid (by hydrocarbon extraction) [1338]
Gums, perfumes: Visitors are often offered bowls of burning frankincense in Dhofar. The men waft the smoke about their beard, head and chest, while women perfume their headshawls and in less formal gatherings, stand over the bowl holding their dress closed at the neck to trap the fragrant smoke inside [1354]
Gums, skin, cosmetics: Powdered frankincense was used as a fragrant talcum powder, and was mixed with ammoniac salts and used in the care of the skin [1593]
Gums, tattoos: The gums or other areas of skin were pierced with two needles held close together and the perforations were then rubbed with soot from frankincense gum to make a permanent stain [1354]
Gums: After harvesting, the gum was sorted out into different grades - the least good being coarse with pieces of bark still adhering to it, the best being rounded beads of a clear white colour [1354]
Gums: Different kinds and grades of gum were carefully differentiated by Dhofaris. The best gum is that collected from trees that grow in more arid regions well out of reach of the damp and mists of the monsoon. Gum harvested at the peak of the hot season is considered best of all. Gum collected from trees that grow in coastal regions is considered to be inferior, especially that gathered in the cold, winter season - such gum is dark in colour, and is considered much less potent than the pure, white gum collected from other areas. Knowledgeable purchasers would buy gum specifying both area and season of harvest, even down to naming the exact encampment where the gum collectors had lived during the harvesting season [1354]
Gums: Different species of Boswellia each produce a distinct type and quality [1593]
Gums: Early authorities distinguished between different kinds of frankincense. Theophrastus says that gum scraped off the bark or picked up from the ground is of a lesser quality and this is still considered true today. Whiter gum collected in the "autumn" cutting season was considered superior to that of the "spring" cutting, which was a darker reddish-brown colour and less strongly perfumed. Pliny describes the two cutting seasons in terms that are close to those still employed in Dhofar today: thus "carfiathum" -the autumn season, in Dhofar kharif, and the spring season "dathiathum", in Dhofar dote. All the early authors agreed that the best frankincense was "male" frankincense, and described this as being white, round, whole, oily, and highly inflammable. Some said it was called "male" frankincense because it collected in lumps and hung on the trees like testicles. It was this superior quality gum that was used for burning in temples as offerings to the gods. The gum described as "female" was considered much inferior. It consisted of much smaller pieces shaped like chick peas and of a darker and yellowish colour [1593]
Gums: Historically the preferred shapes were produced artificially - lumps of softened gum being moulded together, small pieces put into a clay pot and rolled around until they had joined into a single lump and taken on the curve of the pot, or liquid, soft frankincense was made into artificial "tears" by being shaken in a basket [1593]
Gums: Many varieties of gum, each with their own distinctive end use and market value, are obtained from B. sacra and B. frereana Birdw. in Somalia [1352]
Gums: Pliny called the fragments of frankincense that crumbled off from worked lumps, together with dust and powder, "manna" [1593]
MATERIALS - TANNINS/DYESTUFFS
Dyes, brown, clothes, inner bark: In Dhofar, the reddish underbark was a widely used dye for imported coarse, unbleached cotton cloth - the everyday clothing of most Dhofaris in earlier years. Bark was cut in thick slices from the trunk and larger branches, crushed and then simmered in water until it had become the required shade. Sometimes a little oil or fat was added to enrich and stabilise the colour. The cloth to be dyed was lowered into the container, weighed down with a rock and left until the required colour had been reached. The dyed cotton came out a clear red-brown, a colour much favoured by those in desert areas [1354]
Tannins, brown, inner bark: In Dhofar, the underbark was used in the tanning process to ensure that the finished leather was a deep mahogany red-brown - the most popular colour for leather. The fresh underbark was also crushed to a paste and used to treat leather bags that had become tainted or smelly: the paste was put inside the dampened skin which was then rubbed back and forth over a smooth surface (as in the tanning process) until all trace of smell had gone and the leather was once more smooth and supple, and its former bright colour restored [1354]
MATERIALS - ESSENTIAL OILS
Other exudate parts, detergents, soap, skin lotions/creams, perfumes: The essential oil and absolute are used as fixatives and/or fragrance components [1400]
MATERIALS - OTHER MATERIALS/CHEMICALS
Bark, fish bait: Dioscorides described how the bark was put into water to attract fish, luring them into nets and traps [1593]
Bark, guns: In Dhofar, the pliable bark was often used to make a sort of pop-gun - a straight branch would be cut and the hard inner core twisted out, leaving a hollow tube. A twig, usually from another plant, would be selected and shaped to fit inside the bark tube, and a projectile made from chewed cloth, or a pebble wrapped in cloth, was rammed into the mouth of the tube. The inner tube was struck with great force up against it, and in skilled hands the "bullet" could cover remarkable distances with great effect. Such guns could be used for catching hare, partridge, hyrax and other small game [1354]
FUELS - MISCELLANEOUS FUELS
Exudates, incendiary: A mixture of pitch, sulphur, tow, pinewood sawdust and powdered frankincense was smeared over a wooden stave and set alight to produce a long-burning taper whose flame was very hard to extinguish. These burning brands were apparently used with great success to set enemy strongholds on fire [1593]
SOCIAL USES - SMOKING MATERIALS/DRUGS
Exudates, intoxicants: A small amount of frankincense was often taken in wine to 'stiffen resolve' or 'raise morale' [1593]
Exudates, intoxicants: Frankincense in wine was said to have been given to those about to be executed, in order to numb the pain and the terror [1593]
Gum, other drugs: In times of war the gum dissolved in wine was sometimes fed to war-elephants to enrage them before they went into battle [1593]
SOCIAL USES - 'RELIGIOUS' USES
Exudates, religion: Early authorities, such as Theophrastus, distinguished between the different kinds of frankincense. All the early authors agreed that the best frankincense was the "male" frankincense, and described this as being white, round, whole, oily, and highly inflammable. It was this superior quality gum that was used for burning in temples as offerings to the gods [1593]
Exudates, religion: Incense is employed particularly in the Roman Catholic and the Greek Churches [1397]
Exudates, religion: The incense used in Roman Catholic cathedrals and churches is about 66% frankincense, 27% benzoin (gum benjamin, the resin from Styrax benzoin Dryand.) and 7% storax (a resin derived from sweetgum, Liquidambar orientalis Miller) [1405]
Exudates, religion:
The very best gum - the "pearls" - fetched the highest price. These were smooth, round white droplets of gum which had formed naturally on the trees, exuding from the bark - they were considered to be particularly "strong" and potent. The "pearls" or "beads" were kept in a separate container to be used on special and important occasions. One such occasion was during examinations at Qur'anic schools, in which children had to recite long passages of the Holy Qur'an from memory. Two or three of the special beads would be left in water with a piece of iron overnight, and drinking the resulting liquid first thing in the morning was held to greatly improve their memory and consequent chances of success [1354]
Exudates, ritual/religion: In many Arabic families, the use of luban (gum) is now restricted to traditional festivities such as weddings and religious celebrations [1368]
Exudates, ritual: In Dhofar, cone-shaped gum "candles" moulded from lumps of fresh, moist frankincense were burnt during the night providing minimal light and keeping at bay the dangerous animals and malevolent spirits which roamed the night. Gum would also be burned near the livestock caves; the smoke wafting around the pens was believed to keep the animals safe from the dangers of the night. Many herders would burn frankincense during milking to protect their animals from evil influences [1354]
Exudates, ritual: In Dhofar, frankincense was burned during the ritual of swearing an oath over the graves and shrines of revered men in a traditional ceremony [1354]
Exudates, ritual: In Dhofar, frankincense was plentifully burned during wedding ceremonies, but rarely at the scene of a death [1354]
Exudates, ritual: In Dhofar, the decision of a serious matter or the finalising of a pact would often be solemnised by the burning of frankincense [1354]
Exudates, ritual: The ancient Egyptians used frankincense in ceremonial purification and mortuary rituals.
Frankincense was kindled in clay troughs and the flame doused with cows' milk and was thought to ward off evil and enemies' malevolence [1593]
NON-VERTEBRATE POISONS - ARTHROPODA
Other exudate parts, Culicidae (mosquitoes), Psychodidae (sand flies), repellent: The fumes from burning frankincense repel mosquitoes and sand flies [2454]
MEDICINES - UNSPECIFIED MEDICINAL DISORDERS
Bark, humans, teas: In Dhofar, the astringent bark was dried and ground and taken as a stimulating and cleansing infusion [1354]
Fruits, humans: In Dhofar, the dried hard "core" of the fruit is crushed (a slow and laborious process) and used as a "very potent medicament" [1354]
Fruits, mammals: In Dhofar, the fruits were gathered to feed sickly stock (usually goats), being considered to possess curative and stimulating properties exceeding even those of the foliage [1354]
Gum, humans, fumigants: In Dhofar, smoking gum was wafted around those undergoing a painful operation, such as circumcision [1354]
Gum, humans, mammals, prophylactic, palliative, fumigant: In Dhofar, the fumes of the smouldering gum were considered to have powerful curative and protective properties: a sick person or animal would be fumigated with frankincense by placing a bowl of the smouldering gum at their head while relatives walked around them carrying another smoking burner murmuring various invocations and incantations. Since most serious or prolonged illness was considered to be the result of hostile action on the part of someone or something, such processes were a regular feature of most courses of treatment, and was also carried out prophylactically. Sometimes the smoke was inhaled (see note under MEDICINES - INFECTIONS/INFESTATIONS, below) [1354]
Gum, humans, oral ingestion: Made up into pills, the gum was used to treat the spitting of blood [1593]
Gum, humans: It appears that the gum was used in China for various medicinal purposes, and probably still is (1982) since China remains the main importer of the gum [1095]
Gum, humans: The gum was used in the treatment of almost every imaginable disease by Greek and Roman physicians, and remedies employing frankincense also appear in the Syriac Book of Medicine, in the text of Muslim practitioners of the Middle Ages, and in Indian and Chinese medical writings [1593]
MEDICINES - ABNORMALITIES
Bark, humans, skin, oedemas, ointments: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for swelling (oedema) [1354]
MEDICINES - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS
Debarked 'roots', humans, stomach: The inner white root of a young plant was chewed for the sweet liquid it provided, as a treatment for various stomach ailments [1593]
Exudates, humans, teeth, gums: Frankincense was chewed to strengthen teeth and gums [1593]
Flower buds, fruit, humans, oral ingestion: The buds and fruit were appreciated as an astringent mouthful by Dhofari herders and their families. They have a taste reminiscent of the gum, and were considered to have a purifying effect on the whole digestive system [1354]
Gum, humans, purgative: Said to be used in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is chewed or added to coffee [1368]
Gum, humans, teeth, caries: Small fragments of gum were mixed with salt and inserted into a painful or carious tooth [1354]
Gum, humans: In Dhofar, fresh gum was chewed to refresh the mouth, to strengthen teeth and gums, and generally to cleanse the digestive system [1354]
Leaves, mammals, diarrhoea: Considered one of the best treatments for livestock [1593]
Resin, humans, stomach, stomachic: In Tanzania, a decoction of the resin is made with cinnamon and cardamom and taken to relieve stomach ache [1340]
MEDICINES - GENITOURINARY SYSTEM DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, kidney stones, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman (Dhofar), stones were dispersed by taking a mixture of mare droppings, frankincense and fermented honey (or, according to other sources, honey, wine, frankincense and the faeces of the patient!) [1593]
Exudates, humans, other genitourinary system effects, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman (Dhofar), frankincense was mixed with wine and parts of a hyena and the mixture drunk to restore or improve fertility [1593]
Gum, humans, diuretic: Said to be used in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is chewed or added to coffee [1368]
Resin, humans, diuretic: The resin is a Swahili diuretic. It is used for the same purpose in Tanzania [1340]
MEDICINES - INFECTIONS/INFESTATIONS
Gum, humans, eyes, infections: In Dhofar, the soot of the gum was used to make eye antimony (or to stretch a small amount of the costly imported antimony). This was worn to protect against infection and to improve the sight, to soothe sore eyes, and for cosmetic purposes [1354]
Gum, humans, gonorrhoea: In Somalia, the roots of Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.)Wild. are said to be boiled (half a kilo in 2 glasses of water) and 50 grammes of Boswellia gum (species not given) are added. One cup is taken three times a day for three days in the treatment of gonorrhoea [1408]
Gum, humans, respiratory system, colds: In Dhofar, the smoke of the smouldering gum was inhaled by people suffering from a headcold. See also note under MEDICINES - UNSPECIFIED MEDICINAL DISORDERS [1354]
Infructescences, humans, throat, infections: The buds and berries have been used to cleanse infected throats [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, malaria, prophylactic, fumigants: The fumes from burning frankincense repel mosquitoes, partially protecting church congregations and people in other places where it is burnt, in malarious areas [2454]
Resin, humans, schistosomiasis: In Tanzania, the resin is boiled in sesame oil and taken daily for bilharzia [1340]
MEDICINES - INFLAMMATION
Exudates, humans, respiratory mucosae: Frankincense was chewed to disperse phlegm and mucus from the head [1593]
Gum, humans, breasts: In Dhofar, mastitis was treated with dry or fresh gum. It was boiled in milk from the patient, forming a thick paste which could be smeared over the affected part. Alternatively the gum was sometimes mixed with ground cuttlefish bone and soured milk instead [1354]
Resin, inflammation: In an experimental test of the anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from the resin (specifically the inhibition of the maximal oedemal response and the total oedema response during 6 hours of carrageenan-induced rat-paw oedema) extracts from the resin of B. sacra did not exhibit significant activity [1367]
MEDICINES - INJURIES
Bark, humans, burns: In Dhofar, the bark was slowly singed beside a fire until black, then powdered and the powder stored in a leather pouch as part of the family medicine chest - the reconstituted powder was a widely-used dressing for wounds and burns [1354]
Bark, humans, wounds: In Dhofar, fresh bark was also pounded and put into a small quantity of water which, after being left to macerate, was squeezed through a piece of fine cloth over dirty or infected wounds as an antiseptic [1354]
Gum, humans, wounds, external applications: The gum is dried, crushed and mixed with myrrh and dried aloes' juice to make an antiseptic powder used on wounds [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, bites (non-venomous), prophylactic, fumigants: The fumes from burning frankincense repel mosquitoes and sand flies, partially protecting church congregations and people in other places where it is burnt [2454]
Other exudate parts, humans, haemostatic: Soot produced from burning frankincense was valued as a haemostatic [1593]
MEDICINES - MENTAL DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, internal applications: Frankincense is described in the Taj al Arus as being taken to dispel forgetfulness, and today it is still appreciated for this purpose in Arabia [1593]
Gum, humans, amnesia: Said to be used in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is chewed or added to coffee [1368]
MEDICINES - MUSCULAR-SKELETAL SYSTEM DISORDERS
Bark, gum, humans, bones, fractures: In Dhofar, the broken limb would be splinted between two lengths of frankincense bark and then bandaged around with strips of cloth or bark soaked in the fresh gum, which would set hard when dry and provided a firm support for the mending bone [1354]
Exudates, humans, rheumatism: The oleo-gum-resin is used in India as a remedy for rheumatism [1340]
MEDICINES - NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, epilepsy, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman (Dhofar), frankincense was mixed with white wine and the lungs of a hare and the mixture drunk as a remedy for epilepsy [1593]
Exudates, humans, stimulant: Frankincense was taken to avert lethargy [1593]
Gum, humans: Used in Yemen to treat emotional and psychological problems [1368]
MEDICINES - PAIN
Bark, humans, muscles: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for severe muscle pain [1354]
Exudates, humans: Frankincense in wine was said to have been given to those about to be executed in order to numb the pain and the terror [1593]
Gum, humans, eyes: In Dhofar, the soot of the gum was used to make eye antimony. This was worn to soothe sore eyes, to protect against infection, to improve the sight and as a cosmetic [1354]
Gum, humans, head, analgesic: In Dhofar, the smoke of the smouldering gum was inhaled by people suffering from a persistent headache [1354]
MEDICINES - PREGNANCY/BIRTH/PUERPERIUM DISORDERS
Bark, humans, morning sickness: The astringent bark was chewed by Dhofari women who were nauseated in early pregnancy [1354]
Exudates, humans, labour, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman (Dhofar), a potion made from snake skin with added wine and frankincense was taken to ease difficult labour [1593]
Fruits, mammals, pregnancy: In Dhofar, fruits were gathered to feed parturient (or sickly) stock, being considered to possess curative and stimulating properties exceeding even those of the foliage [1354]
Gum, humans, fumigants: In Dhofar, during childbirth, gum was burned beside the mother, and the newborn baby was also fumigated with frankincense. Regular fumigation with the gum was carried out by the mother for the 40 days following the birth. She would also squat over a bowl of the burning gum daily throughout this period. This practice was held to assist in the healing of any birth scarring or laceration, to protect the parturient woman from postpartum infections during this time, to restore muscle tone and to accelerate the recovery of the body from the rigours of giving birth [1354]
Gum, humans, pregnancy: In Yemen the gum is chewed by pregnant women [1368]
MEDICINES - RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, other medicine types: Small doses of frankincense in wine were given as a sedative to children with respiratory complaints [1593]
Exudates, humans, respiratory mucosae, fumigants, oral ingestion: Used to treat excessive secretion of mucus, as identified in the Pharmacopoeia of India of 1868 [1593]
Exudates, humans: The oleo-gum-resin has been used as a respiratory antiseptic [1400]
Gum, humans, coughs, oral ingestion: The gum is melted, boiled in cow or goat milk, and taken to soothe a cough [1593]
MEDICINES - SENSORY SYSTEM DISORDERS
Gum, humans, eyes, washes: The gum is a common ingredient in eye-washes to treat a wide variety of ophthalmic diseases [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, blindness, external applications: The soot mixed with goat or sheep bile is used to treat temporary or worsening blindness [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, eyes, external applications: In Dhofar, the soot of the gum was collected in a pot held inverted over the burning gum and then scraped off and used to make eye antimony (or to stretch a small amount of the costly imported antimony) [1354]
Other exudate parts, humans, eyes, external applications: In Ethiopia, the soot of the gum is considered to be good for the eyes. Fumigation with the smoke is considered beneficial to sore or tired eyes. [1593]
MEDICINES - SKIN/SUBCUTANEOUS CELLULAR TISSUE DISORDERS
Bark, humans, skin, other skin disorders, ointments: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for chapped skin [1354]
Bark, humans, sores, ointments: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for skin sores [1354]
Exudates, humans, skin of specific areas, external applications: Frankincense mixed with wax was a common treatment for removing bags under the eyes: Emperor Nero was said to have used this to disguise the physical evidence of nights of debauchery! [1593]
Gum, humans, skin, external applications: The gum is dried, crushed and mixed with myrrh, dried aloes' juice and egg white and painted over sore areas of skin to make a protective coating [1593]
Gum, humans, ulcers, external applications: The gum is dried, crushed and mixed with myrrh and dried aloes' juice to make an antiseptic powder used on ulcers [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, disinfectant: Soot produced from burning frankincense was valued as a disinfectant for treating wounds, ulceration and cancerous growths [1593]
USES NOTES - MISCELLANEOUS
Frankincense is used in fumigating powders and pastilles [1397]
The less valuable of the two frankincense trees (i.e. B. sacra and B. frereana Birdw.) [2455]
TOXICITY/POISONOUS COMPOUNDS
Leaves mixed with dried sardines and flour, fed to camels and goats, sometimes induced a severe illness [1593]
CHEMICAL ANALYSES - MISCELLANEOUS
Exudates, essential oils: Essential oils from the oleo-gum-resin are obtained by co-distillation of the frankincense, with steam (steam distillation). The essential oils are mainly the simpler mono and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons of empirical formulae C10H16 and C15H24, respectively. These, together with their oxygenated derivatives, the corresponding alcohols, aldehydes and ketones, are termed terpenoids. Over 20 monoterpenes have been identified in olibanum oil and one investigation yielded 28 sesquiterpenoids from similar material [1405]
Exudates, polysaccharides: The gum portion of B. sacra comprises two polysaccharides, one of equal proportions of galactose and arabinose, the other of galactose and galacturonic acid in the proportions 2:1 [1405]
Exudates: Consists of resin (60-70%), gum (27-35%) and volatile oil (3-8%) [1397]
Exudates: Frankincense comprises about 5-9% essential oils, 65-85% alcohol-soluble resins with the remainder being water-soluble gums. The chemistry underlying the fragrance of frankincense is extremely complex because of the large number of chemicals involved: in one analysis of the resinoid and oil of olibanum, 86 chemicals were identified [1405]
Exudates: Oleo-gum-resin from different geographical origins, and from different species, yield different proportions of terpenoids; it is likely that growing conditions also affect the composition of the frankincense. Not enough unadulterated material from accurately identified species and sites has been fully analysed to indicate which chemicals are species-constant, or which are responsible for the perfume [1405]
Exudates: Olibanum is chemically an oleo gum-resin containing about 27-35% of polysaccharide, 5-7% of a highly aromatic essential oil and the other 60-70% being terpenes (mainly free and combined boswellic acid, L-pinene, dipentene and phellandrene). The polysaccharide is composed of D-
galactose (7 moles), L-arabinose (1 mole) and 4-o-methyl-D-glucuronic acid (4 moles). Traces of L(+)rhamnose and L(-)fucose have also been detected [1365]
Exudates: The exudate is an oleo-gum resin which contains 3-8% of volatile oil consisting of numerous terpenes (e.g. p-cymene) and sesquiterpenes, c. 60-70% of resin and 7-35% of gum. Details of the chemical compounds are given in [1395] [1368] [1395]
Exudates: The oleo-gum-resin contains incensole, incensole oxide and isoincensole oxide (diterpenes)
Exudates: The triterpene acid 'boswellic acid' was isolated from the resin, and pinene, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, p-cymene and 'olibanol' from the oil [1400]
CLIMATE
Oman, Dhofar: Frankincense trees grow in a fairly restricted habitat. They prefer the arid zone behind the monsoon mountains, beyond the reach of the monsoon rain, but within the reach of cool winds which blow steadily during this season. Where the trees grow (or have been transplanted purposely, as has been suggested for those trees found at the back of the Salalah plain) within the range of the monsoon rains, they are known to produce an inferior quality of frankincense
The trees seem to be favoured by a hot and humid climate and need good access to water to grow well, though they will survive under considerably drier conditions [1095]
RAINFALL
Oman, Dhofar: The erroneous understanding that frankincense trees only grow in areas of good rain has persisted even among some modern authorities, such as Muller (1976), who says that the trees are cultivated in the Qarra mountains in areas where the monsoon rains reach. In fact, it is thought that the better frankincense comes from areas beyond the reach of the monsoon [1593]
ALTITUDE
According to Bergstrom et al. (1982) 'mohor ad' occurs from 730 to 1230 m, whereas 'mohor madow' is scattered between 730 to 1000 m [1095]
B. sacra may occur just above sea-level in places where the coastline is steep and rocky, e.g. east of Bereda in north-east Somalia and at Ras Fartak in Hadhramaut. The upper known limit in Somalia is 1230 m (measured south of Mait) and the upper limit in Arabia seems to be at about the same level (1800 m in Somalia as given by Hildebrandt is certainly incorrect) [1342]
Somalia: On the northern slope of Iddie Mt. the lowest individuals are found growing at the same altitude as highest B. frereana Birdw. trees at around 730 m. However, in general B. sacra grows higher up where the higher rainfall supports a denser and somewhat more varied vegetation than in the B. frereana zone [1095]
TOPOGRAPHY/SITES
Oman, Dhofar: Found in the dry zones, and in wadis extending to the coast on the lower slopes of the gullies and run-offs [1368]
Oman, Dhofar: Mostly found growing on the lower slopes and down in the base of gullies and run-offs, or more thickly along the broader floors of the larger wadis, rarely being able to survive on the high ridges or the high raised plateaux [1593]
The trees prefer the arid zone behind the monsoon mountains, beyond the reach of the monsoon rain, but within the reach of the cool winds which blow steadily during this season. Where the trees grow (or have been transplanted purposely, as has been suggested for those trees found at the back of the Salalah plain) within the range of the monsoon rains, they are known to produce an inferior quality of frankincense. The trees on the seaward-facing slopes west of the Thumrait road and along the course of Wadi Adonib, for instance, were recognised as not being as profitable to work as were the trees growing in the rocky gullies and run-offs in the dry hinterland of the Mughsail area, in the high mountains behind Hasik and Sudh, or in the larger north-draining wadis behind Jibjat, such as those in the vicinity of Barbazum and Dhahabon [1593]
Usually in rocky slopes and gullies, often on limestone boulders, and more rarely on vertical rock-faces like B. frereana Birdw. [1342]
While the trees grow in areas of low rainfall and on bare rock it is thought that their roots penetrate down to reach water carrying layers. Planted trees seen in Mait, Dayaha, God Anod and in Debbis nursery seemed to depend on a good water supply to support lush foliage. Boswellias are sometimes found in watercourses, actually growing on rocks, but their roots penetrate crevices in the rock and grow down into the watercourses [1095]
GEOLOGY
Limestone: Said to grow on dolomitic limestone or limestone only [2255]
VEGETATION
Somalia (N.): The trees are dispersed here and there and the density of the vegetation is very low [1095]
Somalia: Found in Acacia-Commiphora woodland in the subcoastal zone and, at higher altitudes, also penetrates the evergreen scrub zone, where it is associated with trees and shrubs like Buxus hildebrandtii Baill., Dodonaea viscosa Jacq., Cadia purpurea (Picc.)Ait., Sterculia africana (Low)Fiori, Ficus sp., Delonix elata (L.)Gamble, Acacia bussei Sjost, Acacia etbaica Schweinf., Maytenus somalensis (Loes.)Cufod., Indigofera sedgewickiana Vatke & Hildebr. and Dracaena schizantha Baker. At the southernmost known locality, the Karkar Mountains, northeast of Gardo, it is found in sparse vegetation with Acacia spp., Commiphora spp. and Mimusops angel Chiov. [1095] [1342]
FLOWERING/FRUITING/SEED SET
Flowering, fruiting, southern Arabia: Flowering and fruiting occurs from September to November [1368]
Fruiting, Somalia: Near Mait, in 1982, a few trees were seen to be fruiting [1095]
DISPERSAL
The seeds are small and flat and are produced in small easily breaking capsules with 3-5 seeds in each. The seeds seem adapted to wind dispersal, eventually becoming trapped in holes in the limestone [1095]
GERMINATION
Studies have found a very low rate, of less than 8%, even after treatment with different hormones [1095]
SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT
A suggestion as to how seedlings survive in areas of low rainfall, with two long dry seasons, is that water from the commonly occurring mists in the area condense on the rocks and within cavities, thus becoming available for the plant. The swelling of the trunk-base starts at an early stage [1095]
LONGEVITY
Somalia: Unconfirmed reports state the trees could live for at least a hundred years [1095]
CYTOLOGY
2n=22 [1342]
PHYSIOLOGICAL TOLERANCES
The trees need good access to water to grow well, though they will survive under considerably drier conditions [1095]
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Evidence indicates that B. sacra is easy to propagate from cuttings and, given the right conditions, they will grow well [1095]
Somalia: Seven individuals of B. sacra, planted in 1975, were growing at the Debbis nursery. The trees measured between 173 and 295 cm. Most trees had been propagated from cuttings and transplanted, but a few cuttings which had been planted directly had produced the largest trees. In 1982 the trees appeared to be barely growing, and under hard stress, probably due to lack of water. The provision of microcatchments for rainwater collection could have improved growing conditions [1095]
HARVESTING
Ghazanfar (1994) states that the best quality of gum is collected from the ground after it has fallen and solidified and lower quality gum is scraped from the bark. This contradicts data from Howes (1946) [see note under HARVESTING] and, indeed, Miller & Morris (1988) [see note under MATERIALS - GUMS/RESINS] who he cites as a reference. These authors state that the gum which collects on the wound is considered the best and that gum scraped from the bark or picked from the ground is considered inferior or impure [532] [1368] [1593]
Oleo-gum-resin: A special tool, called a "mengaff", is used. One end has a sharp edge, used for the decortication, and the other end being blunt is used in assisting to remove the exudate when it has hardened. In tapping, a wound 4-8 cm long is made and a single tree may be tapped in one or more places according to its size. After about a fortnight the exudate, which collects as globular, pear-shaped or club-shaped tears, is removed and the wound freshened. Further collection is carried out every few weeks. At each collection it is customary to remove only the exudate that collects on the wound itself, that which runs down the stem being left to accumulate and collected annually. This resin is of a transparent yellow colour with whitish streaks and constitutes an inferior or impure form. The practice is to suspend tapping of each tree every fifth or sixth year to allow a resting period, otherwise the trees become exhausted [532]
Oleo-gum-resin: A study suggested that tapping methods could be improved, and that the equipment used in tapping rubber trees (Hevea spp.) in plantations could be trialled [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: After making incisions in the trunk or branches the oleo-gum-resin exudes and solidifies and is collected by local people as soon as it has hardened sufficiently. Collection takes place in the dry season as the resin is easily spoiled by rain [1397]
Oleo-gum-resin: An informant from the Sanag region said that B. sacra was tapped during two periods each year (each period of about 90 days). Intervals of about 15 days between tappings means that there are about 6 tappings per period over which the gum quality in terms of size and purity gradually declined. The first period was from January to March and the second from August to October, although this is somewhat dependent on rainfall. Another informant said that the two periods per year are each of approximately 135 days with 15 day intervals, giving 18 tappings annually. The first tapping commences in June, before the "spring rains"; after 135 days the trees are given a rest of one month before the next tapping period. Intervals of 15 days are very suitable, as there is not time for the gum ducts to heal completely between the tappings, so that the yield is maximised. The differences between these regimes and those said to be used for B. frereana Birdw. are thought to exist because B. frereana occurs on drier and in more inaccessible sites. In practice, nowadays, trees on more accessible sites are often tapped continuously during the year, without any rest [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Around 1950 the collection of oleo-gum-resin was said to take place mainly in the north of Italian Somaliland, in the arid Migiurtinia district. Tapping was carried out at the end of March or early April and continued until about the end of September. Tapping was carried out by scraping away portions of the bark and not by making "incisions" in the tree [1397]
Oleo-gum-resin: Every tree is owned, all the trees in the same area belong to the same person or family. Owners often belong to cooperatives, whereby communal loans can be arranged and the profits are shared according to the input (number of trees) of each member. The cooperatives normally employ other collectors. Collection of 2-3 kg per tree, which is the average yearly yield, means 7-20 visits to the tree. Collectors must go by foot in areas with few roads, steep rocky slopes and few waterholes, and the work is sometimes hazardous. The low prices paid to the seller has led to an over-exploitation of accessible trees and an under-exploitation of remote trees [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Frankincense is contained in schizogenous reservoirs in the bark, from which it is obtained either by scraping the grey, papery bark, or, more usually, by 'tapping', using a spatulate chisel (a mengaff) to make deep, longitudinal incisions 4-8 cm long in spring and autumn. The exuding milky juice hardens on exposure to the air to produce globular or pyriform tears. The first two collections are considered to be of a lower quality than subsequent ones. The tears are collected after two or three weeks and the scar is re-cut. The gum is stored for about 12 weeks to harden to the required consistency. After a spell of tapping extending for five to six years, the trees are rested. Two kinds of frankincense are recognised: zakana or 'male frankincense', which is deep yellow or reddish, having circular tears and kundura unsa or 'female frankincense', which is reddish white, translucent and pale [1405]
Oleo-gum-resin: The earliest records of collection and trade of frankincense are shrouded in an often impenetrable mantle of myth with, for example, gum-bearing trees said to be guarded by fierce red snakes which leaped into the air to inflict fatal bites on any intruder; or the trees were believed to grow in an area of swirling mists, the source of deadly disease and fatal epidemics, a place both mountainous and forbidding, wrapped in dense cloud and fog. In the earliest times, such frankincense as was wrested from this inhospitable terrain seems to have been reserved for divine worship, and was considered to be sacred to the gods [1593]
Oleo-gum-resin: The new tapping points are made at the same places as the old ones after harvesting, only a light scratch being required to have the gum flowing again. A special instrument called a "mangaaf" is used for wounding the bark and scraping off the hardened frankincense. The wound should be about 30 mm wide and have a depth of 2.5-4 mm, i.e. not through to the wood. The length depends on the size and condition of the tree. However, in practice palm-sized patches, where the bark has been removed by an ordinary axe are seen, often with the wood exposed [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Traditionally and today, frankincense is collected from wild trees, from December to June, and primarily in March. The best quality of gum is pale in colour, the lower quality gum reddish [1368]
Oleo-gum-resin: A complex pattern of clan/feudal ownership of trees and collection rights exists in Somalia [1352]
Under favourable conditions tapping can be started after 5 to 7 years. The size of the trees will then be 4-5 m and around 15 cm diameter at 1.3 m above ground level [1095]
YIELDS
2-3 kg per tree is the average yearly yield [1095]
Approximately 4 kilos of frankincense per tree, of a value of $35/kilo, were tapped every 15 days for set months [2255]
PRODUCTION
Dhofar: The southern region of Arabia, chiefly Dhofar, has been the major frankincense-producing area in recent times. The frankincense trade in the southern region of Arabia has declined considerably [1368]
Essential oils: Essential oils from the oleo-gum-resin are obtained by co-distillation of the frankincense, with steam (steam distillation) [1405]
Oleo-gum-resin: The major producing countries of the oleo-gum-resin are Somalia and Ethiopia [1400]
Somalia: 200 tonnes of 'beyo' olibanum (i.e. from B. sacra) were produced for the world market in 1987, less than the 800 tonnes of 'maidi' olibanum (from B. frereana Birdw.) and 2000 tonnes of Eritrean olibanum [2449]
TRADE
Arabia: During early times frankincense was one of the costliest items in the Arabian trade. It is said that the Queen of Sheba presented a large amount, brought by her from Yemen, to King Solomon in 1950 B.C. [1365]
Arabia: Frankincense is widely sold in markets throughout Arabia. In 1993 about 5 g of frankincense cost 3000 Omani Rials [1368]
Arabia: Trade in frankincense, myrrh and other similar oleo-gum-resins used to be very extensive, but there is far less demand for them at present. In about 100 AD, the main areas for harvesting frankincense was the Dhofar region of South Yemen and the Horn of Africa (Somalia). The port of Qana, some 400 km east of Aden, was the collection and distribution centre for overland camel routes to the Mediterranean and the northern Persian Gulf (to the Parthian Empire) and by sea westwards as far as India and the East Indies, and to northern Egypt via the Red Sea. Today, only a few tonnes of frankincense are produced annually in Arabia, compared with an estimated 3000 tonnes at the time of Christ. The decreased demand for frankincense dates back to the Roman espousal of Christianity, exacerbated by the rise of Islam in 622 AD - Islamic rituals seldom require incense. The main uses became medical, cosmetic and as household incense, or as a fumigant. Arabian dealers complain that cheaper incense from India and Somalia are now swamping the market [1405]
B. sacra is the main source of frankincense today
China remains the main importer of the gum [1095]
Dhofar: In early records the gathering of the exudate was described as being the job of slaves and of others banished to the area as a punishment. The collectors were said frequently to perish from lack of food and to fall sick from the many fatal infections endemic to the area. The gathered exudate was taken to the ports and loaded onto the trading ships only with the express permission of the king [1593]
Dhofar: Ptolemy described a frankincense trading depot in the mountains of Ophir, thought to be in Dhofar. Excavations around the lagoon near Taqa have confirmed that there was indeed an all-weather harbour and landing ground (now submerged and silted up) [1593]
In the markets of the Roman Empire, the value of frankincense and myrrh was sometimes equated with that of gold. The ancient Egyptians believed frankincense to be the sweat of the gods, fallen to earth [1593]
India: According to a survey of Indian markets, nowadays it is not usual to find the resin of B. sacra for sale. In the past it was sold in India under the name 'luban', but the products now sold under this name are the resin from Styrax benzoin Dryand. from Indonesia or S. tonkinensis Craib ex Hartwich from Thailand, both generally known as gum benzoin [1365]
Oleo-gum-resin: Trade in frankincense was of great economic significance. Firstly to those who lived within the area in which the trees grew; secondly to those who at varying stages in recorded history managed and organised the trade in the gum and the various market outlets; and finally to those who controlled the overland trade routes, especially once the successful domestication of the camel had been achieved [1593]
Somalia, Yemen (Aden): Around 1949 frankincense was often despatched to Aden and then Bombay, the great emporium for gums and resins in the East, or it was shipped direct to European ports. Most of the Somalian gum from what was then British Somaliland, went through Aden. "Blocking" or consolidation of the tears commonly occurs which makes sorting difficult and expensive, and results in a lower price. It was suggested that to reduce the likelihood of blocking the frankincense could be bought and graded at Berbera and despatched direct to consuming countries rather than to Aden first [1397]
Somalia: In 1982 Somalia had near monopoly control of the production of incense, but this position is not at all exploited optimally. Actual production and potential demand are unknown as international marketing of the raw products is still in the hands of wealthy individuals who organise smuggling out of numerous seaports on the northern coast to Aden and further to Bombay and China. The Somali Government has attempted to put trade under the command of a national commercial agency - The Frankincense and Gums Trading Agency (FGT). China remains the main importer of the gum [1095]
Somalia: The average price paid to the seller in Somalia was estimated in 1982 to be about 0.80-1.20 US$ per kilo, with the lowest estimate thought the most realistic. These prices seem low compared with other sources of income. The frankincense cooperatives sell ungraded frankincense to the local FGT agent (Frankincense and Gums Trading Agency). The price is then set according to estimated "average" quality. The gum is then sorted and graded in local stores and packed for export. The main ports for export are Berbera and Mogadishu. The big difference between the prices paid by FGT agents and the export prices is a strong incentive for smuggling, estimates of which vary from 20% (FGT estimate) to 80% of total production [1095]
Somalia: The export market in Somalia was declining in 1989. This was thought in part to be due to an upsurge in illegal trade [1352]
Somalia: The Frankincense and Gums Trading Agency was formed out of the Somali Trade Agency in November 1981. It is the only agency allowed to buy, handle, sell and export frankincense, myrrh and other gums. Its annual sale is about 2000 tonnes. The agency has ten districts in the north and east where the incense is bought from the collectors. The price is paid according to grade. A comparison with the export prices in 1982 is given below:
| Export price (US$) | FGT price to sellers (US$) | |
| Tears - first quality | 6 | 1.36 |
| Tears - second quality | 3 | 0.96 |
| Siftings | 3.5 | |
| Powder | 2 | |
| Ungraded | 4 |
The base price paid by the FGT is thus 0.90 US$/kg, to which a bonus is added according to the proportion of better quality frankincense. The FGT's high margin of about 3 US$/kg is what is thought to provide the incentive for the substantial smuggling trade [1095]
Trade in frankincense dates back to at least 2000 BC [1352]
U.S.A., Europe, imports: The oleo-gum-resin used commercially in the U.S.A. in the perfume industry and in incense manufacture comes from India, Eritrea and Somalia. That used in Europe also comes from Aden [506]
FIELD TRIALS
Somalia: Field trials were set up in several locations, with several hundred B. sacra and B. frereana Birdw. cuttings planted. Details of the initial stage of this project (up to 1982) are given in [1095]. There is no indication of any results [1095]
ESTABLISHED PLANTINGS
Somalia: 6-7-year-old plantations of B. sacra were said to be found around Bosaso in 1982 [1095]
Somalia: A plantation of 10,000 plants was established at Ambarsare, N.E. of Gardo, in 1982 by the frankincense cooperative in Gardo [1342]
Somalia: A tree was planted at God Anod, 24 km N.E. of El Afwein, 1280 m above sea-level in 1979. After 3 years it had reached 2.5 m and 4 cm diameter at the root [1095]
Somalia: In August 1975 around 100 cuttings from B. sacra and B. frereana Birdw. were planted in Erigavo for an FAO project at the forest nursery, now known as the "Range Agency Nursery". The trial area had been turned into vegetable gardens but reports suggested about 30 cuttings rooted and grew, despite the relatively cool climate [1095]
Somalia: Seven individuals of B. sacra, planted in 1975, were growing at the Debbis nursery. In 1982 the trees measured between 173 and 295 cm. A taller tree, 370 cm, had recently died. Most trees had been propagated from cuttings and transplanted, but a few cuttings which had been planted directly had produced the largest trees. The trees appeared to be barely growing, and under hard stress, probably due to lack of water. Other trees in the area had microcatchments for rainwater; the provision of these could have improved growing conditions [1095]
Somalia: Twelve cuttings were planted in 1975-1976 along the seasonal watercourse at Mait at sea-level. Most had been destroyed in a storm but two survived in 1982, the largest being 4.5 m high and 15 cm dbh (below forking). The other tree was 2.5 m high and 5-7 cm dbh and had been browsed by camels. The rainfall in this coastal region seldom exceeds 50 mm/year and can be zero. These trees had good access to somewhat brackish water [1095]
Yemen: Early Islamic literature described plantations around Shihr and in the hinterland of the port of Qishn which was the main depot for frankincense [1593]
PRODUCTION POTENTIAL
No work has been reported on attempts to improve oleo-gum-resin yield of the wild trees by varying tapping methods or frequency or by the use of chemical flow enhancers. There is general agreement that existing procedures in Somalia damage the trees [1352]
REFERENCES
[506] Hairfield, E.M., Hairfield, H.H., jr and Pentz, L.H. 1984. A rapid test for the identification of incense resins. Perfum. Flavor. 9(4): 33-36. En.
[2454] Gillett, J.B. 1932. Herbarium specimen: Gillett 4662. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
[2455] Collenette 1929. Herbarium specimen: Collenette 323. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
